The growth and resistance of apartheid, 1955-78 Flashcards
Petty apartheid definition
The smaller-scale, everyday racial segregation laws and practices in South Africa
Impact of segregation
Non-white South Africans constantly faced humiliation
Families were divided by race laws (e.g. mixed couples)
Blacks were restricted to low-paying jobs, and had poor access to quality education and healthcare
Protests grew, and international sanctions and boycotts pressured the SA government
Verwoerd’s key idea
Make apartheid internationally respectable through ‘separate development’
Part of the vision of NP’s Sauer Report in 1947
Bantu Self-Government Act
1959: Creation of independent homelands for black people to be self-governed (Bantustans)
Black people could own land in these ‘reserve areas’ and have citizenship here (but not in rest of SA)
8 homelands created (later 10), each ruled by their own black tribal leader
! Only 3 homelands were recognized as independent by SA gov. by 1980 (none internationally)
Causes of the Bantu Self-Government Act
NP wanted complete racial separation (‘separate development’)
NP wanted to erase all black political influence
Black labor needed, but gov. didn’t want Black people to have rights in cities (labor reserves)
Justification of apartheid - NP claimed it was a form of ‘decolonization’
Problems of Bantustans
Never achieved economic self-sufficiency as they were very poor - no access to coast/mineral resources
Hugely overcrowded - 13% of the land for 80% of the population by 1980
Few jobs, so workers had to commute long bus distances to work in towns
Rulers were often nepotistic and corrupt, seen as collaborators with apartheid regime
Black education prepared them for life in Bantustans: Simple jobs
Most famous homeland:
Kwa-Zulu (granted self government in 1977) ruled by Buthelezi
Consequences of the Bantu Self-Government Act
Over 9 million black people assigned to Bantustans, splitting families apart as men worked in cities
Poverty - people lived in overcrowded, barren homelands with no jobs or infrastructure
NP used corrupt Bantustan leaders to suppress resistance, strengthening apartheid control
UN and other countries condemned Bantustans, along with protests within SA
Key effects of the Bantu Self-Government Act
Creation of reserve areas into independent homelands for black people, intended to be independent self- governing homelands (progress towards separate development)
Worsening of the conditions of black people in SA (economic problems of homelands, overcrowding, threat of deportation to homeland areas)
Sharpeville Massacre
1960: Led by PAC (Robert Sobukwe turned himself in to police), anti-pass law demonstrations
A large crowd (5-10k) gathered, and police opened fire into the unarmed crowd
69 killed, 180 more wounded (including women and children), many shot in the back
Police and authorities claimed they acted in self-defense
Langa March (same day as sharpeville)
1960: Led by PAC (including Philip Kgosana)
Demonstrators threw stones at police, who then opened fire
2 killed, 49 wounded - overshadowed by Sharpeville
Langa March (30th March)
1960: Response to Sharpeville (and first Langa march)
30000 protesters marched into the center of Cape Town to the Houses of Parliament
Local police promised Kgosana a meeting with the Minister of Justice if the crowd dispersed
The government betrayed and arrested Kgosana days later
Consequences of Sharpeville
Government repression - state of emergency declared which gave police additional powers to arrest without charge and a curfew was imposed, Sobukwe arrested and detained until 1969 (martyr)
PAC and ANC declared illegal organizations and banned
Withdrawal of pensions now required showing a pass (many had to reapply for passes)
Shift from non-violence from anti-apartheid activists - MK and Poqo formed in 1961
UN condemnation, US and UK imposed arms embargo (1963)
Key effects of the anti-pass demonstrations
Raised awareness of injustices of apartheid (large scale demonstrations got global media attention, hostile response by authorities further demonstrated its horrors)
Increased suppression by NP government
Growth of more militant resistance to apartheid
MK
Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) - Militant wing of ANC formed 1961
Initially focused on sabotage to undermine gov. and harm economy by deterring foreign investment
Avoided causing deaths - 200 sabotage attacks (1961-63) with no loss of life
Later escalated to guerilla warfare attacking government buildings
MK and ANC established bases in Lesotho, Botswana and Tanzania, none in SA after banning
MK fighters received training in Eastern Europe and the USSR
Mandela’s Role in MK
Key figure in establishing MK in 1961, shaping its initial sabotage strategy
Raised international profile of ANC and MK through trips to Lesotho, Botswana, Tanzania, London (1962)
Raised support and raised funds through this (Walter Sisulu also raised funds)
Limitations on growth/activities of MK and ANC in the 60s
Government banning, no bases in SA
Most countries bordering SA still under colonial rule, so could not provide support yet
Gov. used violence of Poqo to justify broader repression, making it harder for MK to operate
MK had to operate more carefully to avoid being linked to Poqo’s more extreme actions
Poqo
‘Pure’ in Xhosa - Militant wing of PAC formed 1961
Africanist ideology, rejected cooperation with white/communist groups
More militant and radical, focusing on spontaneous uprisings and direct attacks
Created tension between PAC and ANC (both groups wanted to lead resistance)
Government response in the 1960s
Sabotage Act (1962)
90 day Detention Law (1963)
Increasing in power of police and intelligence services (under Vorster’s authority)
Rivonia Trial (1963-4)
Sabotage Act
1962: Death penalty to be imposed for acts of sabotage (guilt assumed).
House arrest without trial permitted
90 day Detention Law
1963: Permitted 90 day arrests without having to bring charges
Could be renewed (Sobukwe held for 6 years - ‘Sobukwe Clause’)
Increase in power of police and intelligence services
Network of spies and informants
Torture was commonplace
Search without warrant within one mile of border (1965)
Units merged to form Bureau of State Security (BOSS) (1969)
Security services could deport any black person to homelands without stating a reason
Rivonia Trial
Mandela and other MK leaders arrested in 1963 after documents found at MK base (Liliesleaf Farm) linking them to sabotage activities, charged with treason (under Sabotage Act)
1963-4 Trial: Found guilty, avoided death sentence but life imprisonment
Attracted widespread publicity globally + Mandela’s ‘I Am Prepared to Die’ speech
Reasons for continued support for National Party in 60s
Maintained popularity amongst white voters e.g. won 1960 referendum to leave Commonwealth
Strong economy as SA mineral resources desirable globally, international trade/investment increased
Cold war context, West wanted ally in southern Africa against communism as USSR was influencing anti-colonial, independence movements in Mozambique/Angola. Hence, sanctions on SA unlikely
