Major factors involved in apartheid Flashcards
National Party
Responsible for implementing yet also ending apartheid
50s: Pop Reg. Act, Group Areas Act, Bantu Education Act, Pass Laws etc
60s: Banning ANC and PAC, Rivonia Trial, Sabotage Act, 90 Day Detention Law
70/80s: More military and police power, “Total Strategy”, BOSS, assassinations, limited reforms, sanctions, economic decline
89-94: Unbanning of ANC, PAC, SACP, Repealed apartheid laws, Release of Mandela, CODESA, loss of power (1994)
African National Congress (ANC)
Dominant force against apartheid with shifting roles over time
50s: Defiance Campaign, Freedom Charter, Treason Trial (first challenge to apartheid but failed to stop laws)
60s: Sharpeville (ANC banned), MK, Rivonia Trial (Tambo international profile + USSR training links)
70s: ANC weakened inside SA to BCM, secretly rebuilt influence from Soweto (recruited youth)
80s: UDF links, MK bombings, Mandela’s fame, made SA ungovernable, ANC seen as legitimate leader
89-94: ANC unbanned, CODESA, 1994 elections ANC won, peaceful transition avoiding civil war
South African Communist Party (SACP)
Strong ally of ANC while maintaining communist ideologies
50s: Banned, operated secretly through ANC (“Africanists vs Communists” tension), helped with Defiance Campaign, influenced Freedom Charter, provided ideological training for ANC members
60s: Helped form MK, Joe Slovo MK chief of staff, Chris Hani rising, strengthened ties with USSR/China
70s: Rebuilt domestic underground networks, recruited for MK after Soweto
80s: Helped form COSATU, Chris Hani MK leader, Church Street bombing
89-94: SACP unbanned, CODESA negotiations, many leaders took gov. positions, kept ANC alliance
Pan Africanist Congress (PAC)
Militant Africanist approach against apartheid as breakaway from ANC (formed 1959)
59-69: “Africa for Africans”, Anti-Pass Campaign -> Sharpeville (PAC banned), Poqo (militant)
Sobukwe imprisoned/exiled, poorly coordinated armed struggle, lacked international support
70s: Little international recognition, uninvolved in Soweto, Poqo renamed (APLA), Sobukwe dead
80s: Overshadowed by ANC/UDF, increased APLA attacks, clashes with ANC in Tanzanian refugee camps
89-94: PAC unbanned, initially rejected CODESA, APLA attacks on whites, won only 1.25% of vote
Reasons for Decline: Leadership in exile, lack of mass support, violent image, ANC dominance
Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP)
Founded by Mangosuthu Buthelezi (as a Zulu cultural movement (founded 1975)
80s: Clashes with UDF supporters, “Black-on-black” violence killing thousands
89-94: Initially rejected CODESA, boycotted early talks, 14k+ die in IFP-ANC clashes, Boipatong massacre
United Democratic Front (UDF)
Officially an independent coalition but closely linked to ANC (founded 1983)
80s: Coordinated opposition from 600+ groups, boycotts, protests, strikes, promoted Freedom Charter
Albertina Sisulu UDF leader, Tambo endorsed UDF, rebuilt ANC support, MK coordination with UDF
UDF banned 1988 but continued underground, later dissolved (many members joined ANC)
Significance: Acted as ANC’s legal domestic arm, made ANC return in 1990 a lot easier
uMkhonto weSizwe Spear of the Nation (MK)
Founded by Mandela, Sisulu and Joe Slovo after Sharpeville (founded 1961) - sabotage campaign
61: First bombings of government infrastructure (power lines, empty offices) - no civilian casualties
63: Rivonia arrests decimate leadership
Early recruits sent to Eastern Europe, USSR for military training, bases in neighbouring countries
75: Mozambique and Angola gain independence, MK establish more bases there
76: Recruiting of students from Soweto to join guerilla training bases
79: Attacks on police stations (increasing lethality)
83: Church Street bombing and other civilian attacks around these years
90: Suspends armed struggle after ANC unbanned
91-93: MK camps disbanded, some units continue rogue attacks
94: Integrated into SA National Defence Force - few MK members absorbed, many left impoverished
Significance: Forced apartheid state to negotiate but alienated with some civilian attacks
South African Students’ Organisation (SASO)
Founded by Steve Biko at University of Natal (founded 1968) - Black consciousness ideals
69: Defined Black Consciousness philosophy
70s: Established Black Community Programs (BCP) - Literacy campaigns, health clinics
72: Helped form Black People’s Convention (BPC)
73: Biko and leaders banned (restricted to hometowns)
76: SASO/BPC inspired student protests (Soweto), Biko arrested post-uprising (died 1977)
77: SASO/BPC banned, BCM declared illegal
Significance: Taught Blacks to reject inferiority complex, Soweto, Black empowerment
D.F. Malan
First President of Apartheid
48: Appealing NP policies, well organised election campaign, won by 79-74 seats
50s: Introduced various laws: Pop reg. Act, Group Areas Act, Separate Amenities, Bantu Education Act etc.
Laid foundations for apartheid to develop and institutionalised racism, but laws only crude first drafts
Hendrik Verwoerd
‘Architect’ of Grand Apartheid
58: Became PM after Strijdom’s death and immediately accelerated apartheid
59: Bantu Self Government Act creating Bantustans, denying Blacks South African citizenship
60: Sharpeville Massacre, state of emergency, Sobukwe arrested and detained, banning of ANC/PAC
61: SA leaves Commonwealth
62: Sabotage Act - detention without trial, Mandela arrested
63: Transkei declared “self-governing” (puppet state, 90 day Detention Law
64: Rivonia Trial verdict - Mandela, Sisulu life imprisonment
66: Assassinated by a mentally ill parliamentary messenger
B.J. Vorster
President during ‘crisis years’ of apartheid
67: Terrorism Act
69: BOSS formed - secret police
76: Crushed Soweto Uprising, 700+ killed, banned Black Consciousness groups
78: Forced to resign as PM after scandal around BOSS misused funds
P.W. Botha
President of “Total Strategy” - Reform and Repression
‘Win hearts and minds’
78: Became PM after Vorster’s Muldergate scandal
Reform: Legalised black trade unions (COSATU), Indian/coloured limited voting rights, plans to improve township black housing, elected black councils running townships, self-government of homelands
Repression: 5x increase in military spending, 2yr compulsory white conscription, BOSS conducted ‘dirty war’ against ANC and SACP, raids against MK bases in Angola/Mozambique
85: State of Emergency due to failed stabilisation of SA - more police to townships, greater police powers, greater censorship, UDF banned; offered conditional Mandela release, Rubicon Speech
meanwhile Mixed Marriage Act and Pass laws abolished, public facilities [allowed] to desegregate
Neither policy worked, Botha forced to resign after refusing to free Mandela
F.W. de Klerk
President that ended apartheid
89: Became President, realising that apartheid had become unworkable and was also wrong
90: Unbanning of ANC/SACP/PAC, release of Mandela (and others), end to state of emergency, repealed Separate Amenities Act and Land Acts, announced start of negotiations with Mandela
CODESA: wanted power-sharing government and federal structure (different to ANC), possibly endorsed violence against ANC supporters to weaken their position, slowing/derailing talks
Worked hard to get and retain white support, prepared to compromise in negotiations
93: Won joint Nobel Peace Prize with Mandela
94: NP lost vote (20.4%) to ANC, de Klerk became deputy president
Bureau of State Security (BOSS)
69: Officially created by Security Intelligence Act - 3000+ agents
Counterintelligence (anti-ANC), Foreign Ops (neighbouring states), Propaganda (disinformation)
74: Infiltrates SASO/BPC
78: Muldergate Scandal exposes BOSS funding pro-apartheid propaganda abroad
80: Rebranded as National Intelligence Service (NIS) to soften image
Nelson Mandela
The most prominent face of the anti-apartheid movement
44: Co-founded ANC Youth League with Oliver Tambo and Walter Sisulu
52: Led Defiance Campaign (8000+ arrested)
55: Helped draft Freedom Charter
56-61: Treason Trial (acquitted)
61: Founded MK as ANC’s armed wing after Sharpeville and ANC banning
62: Arrested 64: Rivonia Trial - represented himself to speak directly to court and world
Life imprisonment - “It is an ideal for which I am prepared to die” speech
64: Imprisoned in Robben Island - organized “University of Robben Island” for political education and secretly communicated with ANC and maintained ANC unity
76: Refused conditional release for rejecting armed struggle
82: Moved to Pollsmoor Prison (easier access for talks)
85: Rejected Botha’s conditional release for renouncing political violence
90: Released after 27 years
CODESA: wanted majority government and centralist country (different to NP), walked out of talks after Boipatong massacre, almost derailing talks
94: Elected President of South Africa and promoted reconciliation
Kept negotiation and did not choose violence (even after Hani assassination), prepared to compromise
International profile significant: Free Nelson Mandela campaigns, symbol of resistance
Evolution mirrors SA’s struggle (protest -> prison -> power)
Embraced armed struggle but also reconciliation when needed, and avoided civil war
Steve Biko
66: Enrolled at University of Natal Medical School
68: Co-founded South African Students’ Organisation (SASO) - black only student group
69: Became SASO president; articulated Black Consciousness philosophy: “Black is beautiful”
72: Launched Black People’s Convention (BPC) to expand BC beyond campuses
73: Banned and restricted to hometown, continuing to work on Black Community Programmes
76: BC ideology fueled Soweto Uprising - symbolic figure
77: Arrested, tortured for 24 days - died from brain injuries. Police cover-up sparked outrage
Rejected white-led activism, advocating for Black self-empowerment
BC empowered grassroots movements, inspiring future Soweto Uprising leaders
Death induced international anti-apartheid pressure
Oliver Tambo
Critical player in sustaining ANC during its darkest years
44: Co-founded ANC Youth League
52: Opened South Africa’s first Black law firm with Mandela
55: Organized logistics for Congress of the People (Freedom Charter)
58: Became ANC Deputy President during Treason Trial
60: Sent abroad by ANC to mobilize support and funding after Sharpeville
63: Became Acting ANC President after Mandela’s imprisonment
Secured Soviet/Chinese support for MK armed struggle, lobbied UN to isolate SA state
75: Spokesperson after Soweto Uprising, channeling global outrage into new sanctions
80: Orchestrated “Free Nelson Mandela” Campaign, making him a global icon
85: Convinced US Congress to override Reagan’s veto on sanctions
87: Held secret talks with Afrikaners
93: Died weeks before elections: called “The glue that held the ANC together” by Mandela
Diplomatic excellence, ANC could have collapsed after 1960s crackdowns
Walter Sisulu
Central and core member of ANC
50: Elected Secretary-General of ANC
52: Involved in Defiance Campaign (ANC gained thousands of members)
55: Key organiser of Congress of the People (Freedom Charter) - foundational document
56-61: Treason Trial (acquitted)
60: ANC banned after Sharpeville, Sisulu goes underground
61: Co-founder of MK
63-64: Arrested, Rivonia Trial - life imprisonment on Robben Island alongside Mandela
70-89: Mentored younger political prisoners, maintained unity among ANC prisoners
85: Refused conditional release just like Mandela
90: Released from prison, played major role in rebuilding ANC
CODESA: Worked alongside Mandela during negotiations
Celebrated as a founding father of the new South Africa
Chris Hani
Pivotal character in armed resistance against apartheid
57: Joined ANC Youth League inspired by ANC leaders
61: Joined MK - one of its earliest members; trained in USSR and Eastern Europe
62-70s: Rose through ranks, becoming a commander and also SACP member, rebuilding MK structure
83-87: Organized attacks on apartheid infrastructure, including power stations, railway lines etc.
87: Appointed MK Chief of Staff
89: Appointed General Secretary of SACP
90: Returned to SA after ANC and SACP unbanning - very popular leader among youth and townships
93: Assassinated by a far-right white extremist, sparking nationwide outrage as a martyr for freedom
His death almost derailed negotiations; Mandela urged calm that night preventing civil war
Desmond Tutu
A moral and religious leader speaking out against apartheid
61: Ordained as an Anglican priest, focused on social justice and equality
62-66: Studied theology in UK (Master’s in Theology), exposure to civil rights ideas
75: Became Dean of Johannesburg, used role to speak publicly against apartheid (media attention)
76: Publicly condemned government brutality during the Soweto Uprising
78: Appointed General Secretary of the South African Council of Churches - one of the most visible church leaders, promoted non-violent resistance, sanctions, and a moral critique of apartheid
84: Awarded Nobel Peace Prize (global moral credibility)
85: Became Archbishop of Cape Town - position to speak out nationally and globally against regime
90s: Advocated for reconciliation, multi-racial democracy, and peaceful transition
Significance: A voice for justice, unity, and forgiveness through a moral standpoint
Albert Luthuli
Critical leader within ANC
51: Joined ANC, gaining recognition due to his reputation for integrity and grassroots leadership
52: Took part in Defiance Campaign, and also elected ANC President-General
55: Supported Freedom Charter
56-61: Treason Trial (acquitted)
60: Publicly burned passbook in Sharpeville
61: Awarded Nobel Peace Prize (first African recipient) - brought global attention to apartheid
60s: Reduced influence as he was committed to non-violence while MK began operating
67: Died in unclear circumstances (officially hit by a train but suspicions of foul play)
Chief Buthelezi
A significant figure affecting the negotiation phase
ANC Youth League member
50s: Became Chief of the Buthelezi clan - leader in Zulu society
60s: Worked behind the scenes with ANC figures in exile, including Oliver Tambo
75: Founded Inkatha Freedom Party (cultural movement to political organisation) for
-Claimed it supported non-violent resistance and cooperation with ANC, but refused to support armed struggle and opposed sanctions, arguing it harmed black South Africans more than government
-Seen as a moderate alternative by apartheid regime - allowed to operate within KwaZulu
80s: Clashes between Inkatha and ANC/UDF supporters over tactics and ideology
85-89: Often involved in political violence - allegations of state collaboration to undermine ANC
90: ANC unbanned, tensions with Inkatha escalate (10000+ deaths in township violence)
CODESA: Buthelezi initially rejected it claiming ANC and NP excluded IFP and ignored Zulu monarchy
Boipatong massacre (Inkatha killing 38 ANC), almost derailing negotiations and causing civil war
94: IFP joined election days before voting - 10.5% vote, Buthelezi now Minister of Home Affairs
Robert Sobukwe
Africanist advocating for direct action as an alternative to ANC
50s: Member of ANC Youth League
59: Broke away from ANC and founded PAC, emphasising direct action and African leadership
60: Led PAC-organized anti-pass protests, arrested shortly before Sharpeville, held indefinitely under “Sobukwe Clause” to repeatedly extend his length of detention (solitary confinement on Robben Island)
69: Released from Robben Island, placed under house arrest reducing influence
70s: Sobukwe continued to inspire Black Consciousness activists like Steve Biko
78: Died of cancer, allegedly after being denied medical treatment
United Nations (UN)
International influence on apartheid - an assertive role in building global solidarity
52: Begins to discuss apartheid as human rights issue
60: Sharpeville, condemning and calling for change
63: “Recommends” arms embargo on SA - not binding
66: Declares apartheid a crime against humanity (symbolic actions)
73: Apartheid officially classified an international crime
77: Mandatory arms embargo, response to growing repression in SA (Soweto)
80s: UN intensifies calls for sanctions, sport boycotts and support for ANC
90: Begins phasing out sanctions after Mandela’s release
CODESA: UN supports negotiations and transition to democracy, monitoring peace talks
94: South Africa readmitted fully to UN after end of apartheid
