The Fascist State 1925-40 : Consent and Control

Question 1

When was first Fascist Youth Organisation created?

Answer 1

In December 1921, the Avanguardia Giovanile Fascista (Fascist Youth Front) was created for boys between 14-17

Question 2

Developments in youth organisations after appointment?

Answer 2

The Gruppi Universitari Fascisti (GUF) had been formed in March 1923 and this was followed by the creation of the Balilla for children aged between 8 and 14 - these youth organisations were not well structured and competed with the youth organisations of other political parties

Question 3

How did Mussolini formalise focus on youth after dictatorship?

Answer 3

3rd April 1926 - created the Opera Nationals Balilla (ONB) by formal decree with the goal of providing physical and more, benefit of youth through education of boys between the ages of 8 and 18 year - this was then restructured in 1934 with 3 separate categories including the Sons of the She Wolf (6-8), Balilla (8-14) and then Avanguardisti (14-17)

Question 4

Significance of term Balilla

Answer 4

Allegedly the nickname of a boy from Genoa who started a revolt against Austrian rule in 1746 - associated with revolution and independence and used by fascists to represent militarised youth who would stand up to foreign invaders

Question 5

How were girls seen in education by Fasicsts?

Answer 5

Figlie della Lupa (Daughter of the She Wolf from 6-8) and Giovane Italiane (14-17)

Question 6

Who controlled these organisations?

Answer 6

These were under control of the party of the ministry of national education which had been created in 1929 to oversee the scholarly education and physical training of Italy’s youth in a fashion that would create a new generation of loyal fascists

Question 7

Fusion of Party and State

Answer 7

ONB linked into formal education system and was compulsory for all boys and girls from 6-11 ; NOT COMPULSORY AFTER BUT NON-MEMBERSHIP MADE IT DIFFICULT TO ENROL IN FURTHER EDUCATION, BARRED EMPLOYMENT IN CIVIL SERVICE AND SEEN AS REASON TO SUSPECT FAMILIES OF BEING ANTIFASCIST

Question 8

Perks of ONB

Answer 8

Access to scholarships and access to jobs

Question 9

What happened to other youth organisations?

Answer 9

All other banned except for Catholic Church ones

Question 10

What did Male Youth Organisations involve?

Answer 10

Aim was to produce young fascist soldiers - involved not only in moral and spiritual defence of the country but also in special gymnastics and sporting programmes to prepare them physically for military life - for Balilla sports and military training for boys involved wrestling, shooting practice etc

Question 11

Perfect Balilla

Answer 11

Sworn loyalty to Mussolini and dreamt of fighting and dying for his country

Question 12

PE for girls

Answer 12

Gymnastics ensured they were healthy and could bear children and educate them in the love of Italy and Mussolini

Question 13

Fascism in Schools

Answer 13

Lessons on patriotic Italians from classical Rome and links between Caesar and the fascist regime (Mussolini being modern day embodiment) - school textbooks told students of poor treatment of Italian soldiers after WW1 and how fascism had saved the country from a communist revolution

Question 14

Teachers in Fasicsm

Answer 14

ANTIFASCIST teachers were removed from their jobs in the 1920s and from 1933 it became compulsory for teachers to belong to the PNF - all teacher organisations merged into one fascist organisation

Question 15

University Fascism

Answer 15

Focus on formal fascist education or military training (Giovanti Universitaria Fascista - GUF) - allowed part exemption from military service if part of the GUF
GUF focused on running the Littoriali which were national student games involving cultural and debate competitions centred on fascist themes (1934-1940) - 7 million members by 1937

Question 16

Mussolini ha sempre ragione

Answer 16

Mussolini is always right - proclaimed Il duce’s word as law

Question 17

Libel unico

Answer 17

State school textbook wher history was a crucial subject - authorised by government ; patriotism etc needed and 101/317 textbooks were banned in 1926

Question 18

Why did young people join these organisations?

Answer 18

More of the social occasions than a belief in fascism - enjoyment of being outdoors/enhanced career prospects/half price admission

Question 19

Downside of youth organisations?

Answer 19

Divide between success in north and south - in rural south most did not study past age of 11 and nature of agricultural work (laborious) made participation in youth groups more difficult

Question 20

Downside of youth organisations 2?

Answer 20

Divided between boys and girls - not on,y were girls less likely to continue schooling past age of 11, difference between enjoyment boys found in physical activities and outdoor games and the more dull activities for girls (constantly focusing on being good mothers) - 1937 survey found girls more interested in the type of sporting activities provided to boys - SUCCESS HAMPERED BY CONSIDERABLE REGIONAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC DIFFERENCES - were they truly indoctrinated or just enjoyed the social benefits?

Question 21

Both sides of the coin - were they actually prepared to die for Mussolini or just enjoying social aspects?

Answer 21

In WW2, the most dedicated fascist soldiers who fought to the end were mainly young Italians who were products of fascist youth policy. BUT ALSO MOST ANTIFASCIST FORCES WERE PREDOMINANTLY MADE UP OF YOUNG PEOPLE BROUGHT UP IN SAME EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Question 22

When did the OND come into play?

Answer 22

The socialist organisations for workers recreation and welfare had been closed down - one of the most popular aspects of the regime - in 1925 the OND replaced them

Question 23

What did the OND provide?

Answer 23

They provided workers with a variety of social and sporting opportunities including bars, billiard halls, cycling groups, football teams, libraries and radios. Each OND section had a clubhouse and recreation ground where these activities were provided - plays and concerts provided, arranged summer camps and sponsored theatre groups

Question 24

OND consumer benefits

Answer 24

Rail ticket discounts and provided relief for workers in times of need and providing a level of social insurance - most popular aspect was the subsidised holidays and excursions or provided where workers could take their families to mountain retreats and sporting events for virtually no cost - first example of popular mass leisure and fascists funded it

Question 25

By 1939 OND

Answer 25

Had 4 million members

Question 26

Questionable side of OND

Answer 26

Fascists took care to make the OND ideologically free with none of the sporting, social and educational activities featuring any direct promotion of fascist belief ; questions the purpose behind all of this - was it to create a nation of loyal fascists

Question 27

Sectorial percentages of workers

Answer 27

80% of all state and private workers were members of OND as were 40% of their industrial workers

Question 28

How did OND help boost the fascists?

Answer 28

Reflected on Mussolini’s leadership and contributed to his popularity - fact is that workers could benefit from the OND without any real commitment to the ideals of fascism and simply join due to the mass range of services provided ; Mussolini was adamant not on attempting to educate the workers with facism but participating with fascism as a form of indirect control

Question 29

Conclusion of OND

Answer 29

Was never used to directly indoctrinate the 4 million Italians who joined and the gap between popular policy and creating a nation that believed in fascism was difficult to bridge ; comes down to questioning if Mussolini was even after this goal or just satisfied with mass participation

Question 30

Sporting victories that OND were credited for

Answer 30

1932 - Giro d Italia (cycling race from Milan to Verona)

1938 - won the football World Cup

Question 31

Press control and censorship

Answer 31

In 1923 and 1925 - the PNF had introduced decrees restricting the freedom of the press in Italy and at the end of 1926, these decrees were formalised into official laws (sanctioned by parliament). Prefects now had the ability to confiscate whole editions of any newspaper, journal or magazine that produced material that could be judged as unfavourable to the fascist regime - they had the power to suspend publication, replace editors and shut down offending newspaper completely.

Question 32

What newspapers were shut down?

Answer 32

Left wing newspapers such as Avanti, Partito Popolare and L’Unita were all closed - all journalists were incorporated into a fascist union, which controlled access to jobs and promotion within the profession. This enforced a form of self-censorship ; journalists had to ensure their work was positive towards Mussolini or lose their job - Mussolini’ press officer sent out specific instructions on how the Duce should be described. Journalists were told not to print stories on crime, suicide or traffic accidents as this would disturb the fascist image of Italy as a country with no social problems

Question 33

How were the fascists successful in controlling the image of Italian society, the PNF and Mussolini?

Answer 33

Other forms of control such as increases subsidies for newspapers who painted Mussolini in a positive light were used - so independent newspapers were allowed to exist by under strict guidance - therefore making it very hard for the public to view any alternative narrative other than what the fascists wanted to show

Question 34

Propaganda?

Answer 34

Dissemination of propaganda - goal was to mobilise support for Mussolini and help transform the Italian people into true fascists. Focused on unifying ideals that could draw all Italians together, creating a shared patriotic feeling that celebrated Italy’s history and fascism as the rebirth of the nation. The symbol of Rome was a very important focus for fascist propaganda - cult of Ancient Rome was popularised by propaganda that celebrated the greatness of the Roman empire

Question 35

How did Mussolini do shift to Ancient Rome?

Answer 35

Medieval buildings were destroyed so that Rome’s classical ruins could be better displayed - in 1927 the 2000th anniversary of Augustus Caesar was held in Rome with over 1 million people celebrating . Mussolini was intricately linked to image of Rome as heir of Augustus who was rebuilding Italy from ruins of chaos and war. This was disseminated through newspaper, radio, cinemas etc SPORTING SUCCESS HERALDED AS DEMONSTRATING THE RE-FOUD GREATNESS OF THE ITALIAN PEOPLE WHO WERE DEMONSTRATING SUPREMACY THROUGH GLORY (sporting)

Question 36

Centralise control over press?

Answer 36

In 1935 - Ministry of Press formed and in 1937 it was renamed the ministry of popular culture ; while the censorship practised by the PNF meant it was difficult for majority of Italians to have a view that was against fascist propaganda, there were problems with the mass consensus the fascists strive to create.

Question 37

Problems with Ministry of Popular Culture

Answer 37

Never really sophisticated and had difficulties exploiting modern mediums such as film to disseminate propaganda - lack of mass media in south made national integration of all Italians into a consensus for the support of fasicsm difficult and the extent to which they actually transformed Italian attitudes is very questionable

Question 38

What was the cult of Il Duce?

Answer 38

Fascist propaganda focusing on Mussolini’s leadership and the creation of this cult - image propagated through posters, cinema etc that sought to portray Mussolini as a leader of immense ability leading the Italian people to greatness - slogan Mussolini is always right => 30 million photos of Il Duce in 2500 different poses circulated around italy

Question 39

Key message behind cult of Il Duce?

Answer 39

Someone that appealed to all - shirtless and masculine attracted to opposite sex but contrastingly also a traditional family man - strengthened his image as opposed to weakening it

Question 40

Idea of Mussolini in relation to the party?

Answer 40

His image as a lone leader, above his party and the nation, became more pronounced and was without friends who could distract him from his work/normal human emotions that might hinder others - represented hopes and desires of the Italian people and the supreme patriot heir of Julius Caesar ; this sustaining myth United Italians in support for the dictatorship ; although fascist ideology may not have been popular, Mussolini himself stood above the party as a believable leader

Question 41

Key Problem with Cult of Il Duce

Answer 41

Mussolini’s image as focus of dictatorship was more popular than PNF so we do not know how far fascism can be seen as Mussolinism - if true goal of fascism was to transform Italian people into a more militaristic culture then cult had NOT achieved this - instead it focused on the worship of one leader as opposed to an ideology that could carry itself after his death ; difficult to consider Fascism WITHOUT Mussolini

Question 42

Added difficult of Propaganda?

Answer 42

As Mussolini aged the image of a youthful, active and dynamic leader was harder to sustain ; as 1930s progressed Mussolini became less inclined to see the cult of Il Duce as simply a propaganda myth and instead came to believe in it himself (more radical and progressive policy from 1935 onwards)

Question 43

What else helped in their goal of turning the people into loyal fascists?

Answer 43

A cultural revolution that perpetuated the ideals of fascism

Question 44

Cultural policies?

Answer 44

Produced policies for artists and intellectuals between 1925 and 1926 - all art should help sustain the fascist myths and images. National Institute of Fascist culture was created in 1926 and organised into associations like FASCIST SYNDICATE LED BY ANTONIO MARAINI ; they (National institute…) organised free concerts and publications that would engage the masses in fascism

Question 45

Film?

Answer 45

PNF funded Italian film industry and in late 1930s created a state a film production complex known as Film City - in 1932 the Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution was held to celebrate a decade of fascist rule ; artists were commissioned to produce artwork that represented this achievement and over 4 million people visited this exhibition

Question 46

Mussolini’s ideals with art

Answer 46

NEVER attempted to control artistic styles and much of fascist art could be quite modern and experimental - just had to glorify fascism

Question 47

Architecture in Fascism

Answer 47

Intrinsic part of culture with new fascist buildings modelled on a neo-classical Roman style that was meant to make connection between old and new regime quite clear ; plays and movie were crucial mediums of fascist culture - Foranzo produced 3 plays including Napoleon and Julius Caesar which provided the audience with a link between these patriotic leaders and Mussolini was listed as co-author of the plays ; SIEGE OF ALCAZAR glorified fascism BUT 87% of Italy’s films were from hollywood

Question 48

Conclusion

Answer 48

While they were able to effcientky control what was released - not OVERLY successful in boosting image as it was never focused in a coherent manner with a key message that would resonate with Italian people (lacked an intellectual giant like D’Annuzio who could inspire the population in a popular appeal - again QUESTIONABLE)

Question 49

What else did Mussolini use?

Answer 49

Used popular organisations such as the OND but it is clear that repression of political opponents was also a big deal - November 1926 Mussolini introduced legislation that banned all opposition parties and suppressed any Italian who protested - death penalty was reintroduced for anyone threatening state security

Question 50

How did he target political opponents?

Answer 50

Special tribunals could send political dissidents into exile (usually in the south) - this was known as CONFINO and used against those seen as anti fascists (without concrete evidence) - this was a financially devastating punishment and families faced considerable discrimination from the fascists and seen as particularly dangerous to employ anyone coming back from CONFINO

Question 51

Political Police Division

Answer 51

Formed in late 1926 under Arturo Bocchini and were successful in infiltrating ANTIFASCIST organisations - they had many spies in Italy and abroad and in 1937 worked with the SIM (military spy organisation) to organise assassination of prominent Italian anti fascists Carl and Nelli Rosselli

Question 52

OVRA

Answer 52

Italian secret police formed in 1927 by Bochinni to spy on Italians across Italy and ensure no ANTIFASCIST sentiment - 5 000 operators throughout Italy and very successful in infiltrating universities and fascist unions ; Italian mail examined and phone calls listened to by the Special Reserve Service

Question 53

Were the terror organisations successful?

Answer 53

They were successful in suppressing opposition to the PNF and it is estimated that Bocchini had files on 130000 Italians - special tribunals imposed 27,742 years of jail time and around 10000 Italians sent into CONFINO ; prominent socialist and communist leaders fled to Paris BUT regime only carried out 9 death sentences before WW2 - THIS SHOULD BE SEEN AS SUCCESS OF BOCCHINI IN ENSURING THERE WAS LITTLE SERIOUS OPPOSITION TO THE FASCIST REGIME

Question 54

Mussolini’s greatest concern with national security

Answer 54

Not ANTIFASCIST but instead nationalist movements among Slovenes who lived in Italian borders - they were restricted in their culture and the speaking of their national language) faced considerable opposition from fascist authorities

Question 55

Overall conclusion of repression and terror

Answer 55

Difficult to judge extent of fascism reliance on oppression - ANTIFASCIST were suppressed successfully but difficult to judge the extent of ANTIFASCIST feeling in Italy - whether Mussolini relied on repression, popular policy, or the cult of Il Duce to sustain regime is a key debate between historians ; most likely a combination of all 3