Rise of Mussolini and Creation Of Dictatorship Pg 200

Question 1

When was Mussolini appointed PM?

Answer 1

30th October 1922

Question 2

What contributed to the disappointment many Italians felt after the First World War?

Answer 2

Ex-soldiers felt betrayed and humiliated
Campaign against Austria had been sustained through foreign loans and the printing of more money so the economy was now suffering from debt and inflation (for what - one victory of Victoria Venetto?)

Question 3

Why was their tension in the south?

Answer 3

Returning conscripted pushed for land reform that had been promised during the war and many southern peasant conscripts (who made up the large majority of the army) realised how they risked their lives for nothing ; demobilised soldiers in the south forcibly occupied hundred of thousands of farming land

Question 4

Division in North

Answer 4

In the industrial north there was growing divide between returning soldiers and the workers who had been exempted from military service to maintain manufacturing industries - to many soldiers these workers were cowards and shirkers who had stayed behind and got wealthier while the soldiers had risked their lives for Italy on the front line = DID NOT ACHIEVE UNITY

Question 5

When was the Paris Peace Conference?

Answer 5

Versailles in January 1919

Question 6

What happened with Italy at the Paris Peace Conference?

Answer 6

Orlando argued that Italy should be given all the territory it had been promised in 1915 treaty of London plus the port of Fiume on CROATIAN COAST - Fiume had a large community of Italians and claimed it should be part of Italy based on the “principle of nationality” ; this was a WEAK argument because majority of Fiume were not even Italian

Question 7

Main leaders at Peace Conference

Answer 7

Georges Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Woodrow Wilson ; they had a condescending attitude toward ps Italy and did not want it to achieve GREAT POWER STATUS ; they rejected Fiume and aspects of Treaty of London such as the Dodecanese Islands and Balkans
They thought that Italian contribution did not justify territorial claimed ; Orlando said that he would need to justify war effort else there would be anarchy mass protests and revolution ; SONNINO FOREIGN MINISTER - “mutilated victory” was already circulating around Italy

Question 8

How did Orlando react in peace conference?

Answer 8

He walked out - which increase popularity at home but weakened position in Versailles so his pleas were ignored and all the land went to other countries (African colonies) - in June 1919 he was forced to resign as PM

Question 9

What DID Italy gain as a result of Treaty of Versailles?

Answer 9

Trent, Trieste, Istria and northern Dalmatia (1920) - but failures to gain Fiume or colonial terrorised undermined liberal government leading to phrase of Gabrielle D’Annuzio “mutilated victory” - HAD DISGRACED 600000 SOLDIERS WHO HAD LOST THEIR LIVES

Question 10

What did Nitti do (Orlando’s replacement)?

Answer 10

Francesco Nitti chose to play down Italy’s claims so as not to jeopardise Italy’s relationship with Britain, France and USA - allowed Yugoslavia to take Dalmatia and Fiume was a neutral city under LEAGUE OF NATIONS - reduced military spending and issued amnesty to deserted Italian soldiers

Question 11

Backlash of Nitti’s actions

Answer 11

Nationalists condemned him as Cagoia (abject coward) - this helped the fascists spread their idea of a strong autocratic government that would sweep away the decadent liberals and restore Italy to it’s former glory

Question 12

How many in League of Nations?

Answer 12

58 - replaced by UN after WW2 (no own military force)

Question 13

What did D’Annuzio believe in?

Answer 13

Only war could rejuvenate Italy and reclaim its glorious past - he was angered by Liberal Italy

Question 14

Occupation of Fiume?

Answer 14

12th septber 1919 - 2000 men with ex soldiers futurists (before 1919 - nationalistic groups formed in 1909 by Marinetti) students etc seized the port of Fiume without a fight and this was supposedly redemption for italy’s dead soldiers ; overcame the SHAME OF FEB MUTILATED VICTORY - because he was so popular the Italian government did nothing for 15 MONTHS and finally removed on Christmas Day 1920

Question 15

How did D’Annuzio actions affect Mussolini?

Answer 15

He had demonstrated frailty or government
Showed that it could be achieved by decisive action
Persuaded many Italians that liberals had been weak to accept treaty of Versailles
Wearing of blackshirts
Salute
Slogan - Me ne frago
Emotional speeches

Question 16

Post war economic crisis

Answer 16

Millions of soldiers were demobilised - flooding job market and by November 1919 2 million were unemployed ; lira collapsed in value and savings were wiped out. Major companies like ansaldo fiat etc struggled to stay afloat now after the war (due to decrease in demand) - major ammunition companies collapsed in 1921 causing Banca di Sconto bank to close too

Question 17

Post war social discontent

Answer 17

Between 1919 and 1920 Bienno Rosso took place with many strikes - anarchists and socialist radicals were released from jails and there was greater campaigning towards Revolution due to Russia 1917 with membership of unions going up from 250000 in 1918 to 2 million by 1920
1919 - rising food prices caused discontent looting granaries etc

Question 18

List of strikes - 1920

Answer 18

Railway
Telegraph
Army troops
September 1920 - 400000 workers taking over factories for 4 weeks ; this ended but for many upper and middle classes Italy was on the verge of revolution and this was heightened by recession in late 1920
Chaos and fear it created encouraged classes to look towards fascists

Question 19

Countryside after WW1

Answer 19

Government had promised land reform - peasants were unable to farm on it and many peasants seized land from their owners by marching in to barren land -> this alarmed wealthy landowners who feared a rural revolution (socialist unions prominent in Ferrara and Bologna)
Landowners felt threatened by rural militancy and angered by weak government response

Question 20

Political reforms of 1919

Answer 20

Government hoped it could appease people by increase the number of people who could vote - this was increased by 11 million and they introduced law that all Italians who had served at the front or those males over 21 could participate in elections - also changed method of voting to PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION SO THAT PUBLIC VOTE WOULD HAVE GREATER INFLUENCE ON WHICH PARTIES GOT ELECTED TO PARLIAMENT

Question 21

Growth of Catholic parties

Answer 21

In 1919 PPI Catholic party formed and was led by Sturzo (not officially affiliated with Vatican) and pushed for Catholic interests - major campaigner of land reform and the strength of Catholic feeling and popular agitation for land reform made the PPI a strong political force and its hostility to liberal regime meant that it was hard for Giolitti to form a coalition

Question 22

Growth of PSI

Answer 22

War and revolution in Russia had encouraged PSI in a more radical direction and now called for revolution - no work with liberals and supported strikes ; NO MORE TRANSFORMISMO

Question 23

Result of elections 1919

Answer 23

PSI won 32% of votes with 156 deputies in parliament and the next biggest was the PPI which won 101 seats - neither party had majority nor were they willing to work in coalition so old liberals retained power until 1922 (in different coalitions)
Proof that democracy could not solve the problem with same old decadent liberals in power
More and more Italians started to question whether radicalism was the way to go forward # Nitti fell in June 1920 and this fell to Giolitti

Question 24

Foundation of Fasci du Combattimento

Answer 24

23rd March 1919 called representatives from 20 ex servicemen’s leagues to Milan to form national Fasci Di Combattimento - experience in trenches had allowed him to see that war and camaraderie could bring everyone together - trincerocrazia (linked by war consciousness - rule of trenches). Post war Italy would not divide socially/economically but by those who stayed at home or those who fought
Trinceristi - returning soldiers - who had the right to lead Italy forward

Question 25

Early Fasci party programme

Answer 25

Very vague - socialist background had an effect on policy
Programme in June 1919 was anticlerical and wanted confiscation of church property + end of a monarchy + suffrage to women + 8 hour working day + progressive taxation
This DID NOT GIVE FASCISTS THEIR OWN IDENTITY - unable to distinguish from PSI
By June 3000 members from 50 originally (made up arditi - crack troop commandos from WW1

Question 26

Where does Fasci come from?

Answer 26

Bundle of wooden rods bound together with an axe (fasces)

Question 27

Arditi?

Answer 27

Commandos from WW1 -worn a black uniform with white skull and dagger and others within party began adopting this imagery so flag became identity and members known as black shirts

Question 28

Squadrismo?

Answer 28

Returning soldiers viewed socialists and communists as internal enemies (same as Austrians during war) - they formed themselves into small military umiys called squads (paramilitary wing) and the members (squadristi) used extreme violence to answer socialist threat
15th April 1919 - 200/300 fascists attacked a socialist demonstration in Milan and burned down offices of Avanti - MUSSOLINI HAD NOT ORGANISED THIS

Question 29

Fascists in 1919 elections

Answer 29

They won less than 5000 votes and no seats in Parliament

Question 30

Mussolini’s reaction to 1919 election

Answer 30

He encouraged formation of squads and violence as he realised that the police/army/government were prepared to tolerate squadristi violence because of fears of a socialist revolution

Question 31

Formation fo squads

Answer 31

Organised like military units under a commanding officer called a ras with members carrying a manganello/revolver who attacked socialist councils and their weapons were supplied by local police - they targeted key PSI members through torture and 200 people killed in 1921 from fascist violence
Helped create the myth that the fascists violence against socialists had saved Italy from revolution

Question 32

Why was fascism popular in countryside?

Answer 32

Wealthy landowners happy to see socialist land leagues (who were trying to bring about land reform) destroyed - saved them from traitors/radicals within the country
Fascists failure + popularity of action against socialists helped encourage Mussolini to rake fascists movement more definitely to the right

Question 33

Political legitimacy of fascist movement in 1921

Answer 33

Respectable liberals who feared socialism shared belief that squads were restoring order and police stood by - actively joining in sometimes ; this violent attack against socialism showed in general election of May 1921
Judiciary were very lenient to fascists and they achieved an electoral breakthrough winning 7% of the vote (35 seats in chamber of deputies) - it gave Mussolini a new respectability and authority by legitimising fascism and he benefitted from immunity to prosecution (charge against Mussolini for “intent to overthrow government by violence” was now quietly droppedj

Question 34

What was the new programme?

Answer 34

In May 1920 at the second fascist national congress a “New Programme” was adopted - very right wing and all references to the nationalisation of right wing dropped, republicanism, anti-clericalism dropped
Called for compulsory military service and the goal of completed unification

Question 35

What was PNF

Answer 35

Official party founded in October 1921 ; founded local branches instead of a wide disparate conglomeration - centralised control

Question 36

Nature and extent of fascist support in 1921

Answer 36

200000 members and it appealed to everyone - white collar workers feared socialist revolution and an increase in taxes if socialists came to power - protect against land reform agitation and many young Italians had grown tired of striking + liberals - fascism was only party that appealed to everyone by uniting them through patriotism and belief in Mussolini

Question 37

Factors resulting in an increase in fascist support?

Answer 37

Financial support from the rich who support fascists’ attempts to break up socialist land leagues/union power - which had reached 2 million strong
Support came from workers and peasants who opposed the socialist use of violence against people who wanted to continue on working during strikes
Strong patriotism - caporreto defeat and mutilated victory
Fear of socialism - fate of Russia in 1917
Weak liberals - failure to gain any land/sort out socio-economic problems

Question 38

Advantage of political unrest - Giolitti

Answer 38

Appointed after Nitti resignation on 9th June 1920 - he was 80 years old and despised by nationalists due to anti-interventionist policy ; used tactic of absorption to address 1920 strikes of Bienno Rosso which was successful in short term and by 25th September strikes ended. However there was a lot of anger from middle classes, industrialists, nationalists etc that he had given in to socialist demands CONTRAST WITH FASCISTS who see fighting this extreme threat of socialism through violence in order to stop revolution

Question 39

Weakness of fascist opposition?

Answer 39

January 1921 radical PSI split to form the PCI with Russian support ; much more radical in its aims for revolution - this split weakened strength of left wing movement and Mussolini claimed that Bienno Rosso failed because of fascist success that had saved Italy from left wing revolution
PCI too small to provide a political threat and the party was used as a propaganda tool for the fascists as it was proof Italy was on the verge of a similar revolution as to what happened in 1917 Russia

Question 40

July 1922 strikes?

Answer 40

PSI and PCI backed the call for 24 hour strike but this strike faded out as workers were tired and Mussolini claimed that this was due to action of fascists - spreading the myth even further

Question 41

Why could transformismo not work anymore?

Answer 41

Ideological splits were too deep rooted and well defined - PNF and PCI and PPI were less likely to be bought off - plus much harder to form a coalition with so many different parties. In 1921 election Giolitti tried to absorb fascists by offering members a place in his “national bloc” on ballot paper and hoped he could tame the fascists - which was a mistake as when Mussolini was voted into parliament alongside 34 other fascist deputies he said he would vote with opposition (123 socialist and 107 PPI). Giolitti chose to resign as transformismo obsolete due to universal suffrage and formal political parties - no stable government could be formed

Question 42

Who came after 80 year old Giolitti?

Answer 42

Ivanoe Bonomi and Facta - weak liberal politicians

Question 43

What was Mussolini’s dual approach?

Answer 43

Violence of squads provided fascist strength but still wanted to manoeuvre himself through constitutional means - balancing act between radical revolutionaries and more conservatives

Question 44

How did Mussolini approach the dual policy AT FIRST?

Answer 44

In July 1921 called for an end to squadristi violence because he feared with the threat of communism somewhat fading, industrialists would question why fascist violence was continuing - in August he made the startling step to sign the Pact of Pacification and said on the national front that this was necessary to achieve social and political peace… but the real reason was that he was hoping that the liberals and Catholics within parliament would come to a deal to stop him working with the socialists

Question 45

How did Mussolini control the ras?

Answer 45

Multiple squads were loyal to their ras and not really Mussolini - squads were funded on a local level and not by a centralised body so pact of pacification was also to assert his dominance over fascism and force ras to follow his political direction - he failed in doing so as 3 main ras bosses DINO GRANDIL ITALO BALBO AND ROBERTO FARINACCI condemned the pact and squadristi all called for an end to a deal with the socialists - Mussolini yet again showed his political skill by resigning on 18th august and without Mussolini, the ras were unable to formulate policy/work together so his absence strengthen his position in the party by showing how crucial he was

Question 46

How did Mussolini assert his authority within the party?

Answer 46

Offered Dino Grandi (ras boss) a position in a new fasict journal who then confirmed his support for Mussolini and then in November 1921 fascist delegates voted to support Mussolini as head ; his resignation has confirmed the importance of his leadership to the party as without him there was no unity. Mussolini now was above rad (subordinate) and confirmed that the squads were under his control not the ras

Question 47

When did Mussolini drop the Pact of Pacification?

Answer 47

October 1921 - he knew bleiben that best way to gain power was to encourage violence hoping to blackmail government into giving him power

Question 48

Formal organisation of squads end of 1921

Answer 48

Grouped into cohorts with a consul commander - consuls were organised under zone commanders and then fascist violence expanded 1922 onwards with blackshirts attacked areas where socialists were in charge ; town after town in northern Italy fell to the fascist and because of liberal government being so weak, Bonomi collapsed in Feb 1922 and replaced with Facta - BALBO destroyed everything on east coast (Rimini) and by September they were ready to take Rome.

Question 49

What happened between May and October 1922?

Answer 49

Squads attacked Genoa Milan Livorno Ancona Bari and murdered socialist leaders and supports essentially creating a “de facto” fascist government

Question 50

What effect did squad violence have?

Answer 50

It weakened Facta and by 1922 PNF has grown ro 320000 members and 500000 workers in fascist trade unions - Mussolini still pursued his dual policy backing the monarchy during taxes and balancing the budget BUT at the same time encouraged squads to attack Bolzano and Trent which were liberal states and he was challenging the government itself ; Orlando and Nitti hoped an alliance would help them become PM and all the liberal figures were more concerned about their rivals becoming PM than stopping Mussolini who cleverly encouraged this division by promising them that they would be PM in a fascist coalition government

Question 51

Events in March on Rome 1922

Answer 51

1st august - socialists call a general strike but poorly organised
16th October - plan of takeover
24th October - fasict Congress either appointed PM or seize power
27th October - March in Rome start with taking control of telephone exchanges etc (Facta asks king to authorise army to stop fascists)
28th October - 2 am King agrees on martial law and Mussolini arrest ordered by 7 hours later refuses to enforce martial law and King turns to Salandra who is unable to form a governemnt
29th October - king invites Mussolini to be PM
30th October - sworn in
31st October - victory parade by squadristi

Question 52

Role of Victor Emmanuel III in appointment?

Answer 52

1) He lacked confidence in Facta to control the situation + encouraged by Salandra to not sign as it may lead to him becoming PM
2) Feared military would not obey him and side with fascists (not loyal)
3) Deterred by Duke of Aoapsta who was a fascist supporter and his mother ; Mussolini hinted that he may be replaced

Question 53

Mussolini appointment as PM

Answer 53

Salandra (who offered Mussolini a place in government) Orlando and Giolitti all hated each other too much so recommended Mussolini who visited the theatre in a show of political calmness
BUT NEEDED A MUCH MORE STRONGER DYNAMIC MYTH IN APPOJTMENT. So he addiebdd in Rome from Milan with 50000 fascist led by quadrumvirs with a victory parade saluting the king
SUPPOSED DEATH OF 3000 FASCIST MARTYRS but in fact he was head of a government with only a minority of fascist in cabinet

Question 54

Who were quadrumvirs?

Answer 54

4 main leaders raked with organising the sack on Rome - Bianchi, de Bono, de Vecchi and BALBO - very powerful in EARLY fascist rule but later on they were sent away to prevent any competition to fascist rule (Somalia and Libya for example) and faded away after 1926

Question 55

Parliamentary compromise and coercion when Mussolini became PM?

Answer 55

39 became PM - many of the squads demanding more rewards for their role in the revolution but Musosolini focused on consolidating power through working with the King and the conservative elites - faced the problem that there were only 35 fascist seats with rival socialists with 123 seats ; his cabinet was 4 liberals, 2 PPI members 1 ANi member and 1 member of military so he appointed himself foreign minister and minister for the interior. AT FIRST, MAIN GOAL TO PLACATE THE OLD RULING CLASSES BY APPOINTING ORTHODOX ECONOMIST ALBERTO DE’STEFANI MINISTER OF FINANCE (got support of conservative industrialists)

Question 56

How did Mussolini gain trust of Catholic Church?

Answer 56

Increased clerical pay and reinstated crucifixes in schools - in February 1923 ANi absorbed into PNF with blackshirts + blue shirts combining (now only one nationalist party) ; appointed PPI member Cavazzoni minister of work allowing greater collaboration with Catholics and by July 1923 leader of PPI Sturzo resigned - Vatican now supported Mussolini at expense of PPI

Question 57

How else did Mussolini consolidate power?

Answer 57

Maiden speech in November 1922 threatened anyone with violence (through strength of squads etc) - he told the deputies that he required a year of emergency powers in order to carry out economic reform that Italy required + warned parliament that 300000 men were ready to take violent action ; this was successful as parliament approved year long emergency powers by 306 votes to 116 (Mussolini had full power and could not be removed)

Question 58

How did Mussolini control the PNF after 1922?

Answer 58

December 1922 created the grand council of fascism with BALBO + de Bono and bianchi ; they discussed key fascist policies and it helped Mussolini undermine the liberal governments by bypassing them and by being leader of the party, he centralised his power over the party
January 1923 created the MVSN which absorbed all the squadristi and formalised their role as a party based paramilitary force who would defend the fascist revolution  - it’s 300000 em ends pledge allegiance to Mussolini and strengthened his control over blackshirts at expense of ras - putting an end to fascist violence which would now be bad for his career as now he was in power fears of a communist rebellion decreased (needed to focus on conservative elites) - since March on Rome party had 783000 members mainly from middle class so older revolutionary members saw their influence fade away

Question 59

1924 election + acerbo law

Answer 59

Mussolini looked to try get the fascists a parliamentary mandate that it lacked but proportional representation made it very hard to win a majority in parliament - therefore he introduced the ACERBO LAW WHICH PROPOSED THAT 2/3 OF PARLIAMENTARY SEATS WOULD GO TO THE PARTY THAT WON MORE THAN 25% OF THE VOTE ; this would bring stability by creating a more coherent parliament

Question 60

Reactions to acerbo law

Answer 60

PCI and PSI opposed the law while liberals and Vatican and king supported it which put pressure in PPI to abstain from voting - Mussolini encouraged violence in Tuscany and Umbria threatening violence if the bill did not pass (wore a black shirt in parliament) ; the law passed and he called for an election on 6th April 1924 - Piccinii socialist died in violence

Question 61

What happened in the 1924 election

Answer 61

Many liberals joined the fascist electoral lists in order to maintain their power - this combined with the fragmented weakness of the other parties meant Mussolini won a 64% majority and his seats went up from 35 to 275 ; the other parties were unable to unite against Mussolini and form an opposition (this lack of ideology and a willingness to work with whoever would win the majority led to its downfall)

Question 62

Matteoti crisis?

Answer 62

Murder of PCI leader Giacomo Matteoti led to an end of parliamentary democracy in Italy and when parliament reopened on 30th May 1924, he delivered a strong speech denouncing the violence and corruption that had taken place during Mussolini’s campaign - Mussolini was worried matteoti had amassed a large file on fascist party corruption so on 10th June HE WAS KIDNAPPED AND BEATEN TO DEATH IN BROAD DAYLIGHT (body found on 16th august) - witness saw number plate of car being muxxokini’x press secretary’s PA (Rossi) and the leader of the kidnapping was Ameritech Dumini who was head of a fascist Terror squad (arrested 12th June) - IMPLICATION OF FASCIST PARTY AND MURDER OF A KEY POLITICAL FIGURE THREATENED TO TOPPLE PNF

Question 63

Reaction to matteoti murder

Answer 63

1) Old established elite concerned by violence
2) PSI and PCI calling for overthrow of fascist government
3) Pressure from ras who thought it was first step to establishing a fascist dictatorship
13TH JUNE 100 ANTIFASCIST DEPUTIES LEFT CREATING THEIR OWN PARLIAMENT ON AVENTINE HILL OUTSIDE ROME (AVENTINE SECESSION) - this in fact HELPED MUSSOLINI AS IT WAS EASIER FOR HIM TO PASS LEGISLATION and the AVENTINE secession was fragemented by several ideological differences and because KING FULLY SUPPORTED MUSSOLINI the AS offered no threat ; he passed prominent roles to nationalistS like Rocco (to appease elite) and ordered PNF to stop violence which put him under a lot of scrutiny from the squads who on 31st December demanded he act to defend the revolution which was 2 days after salandra too declared his opposition to Mussolini who was worried salandra could influence the king

Question 64

How did Mussolini establish a dictatorship in 1925

Answer 64

3rd January 1925 made a key speech where he announced fascist dictatorship and on 12 th January formed a new cabinet where he was PM, minister of foreign affairs, war, navy and aviation and in February appointed FARINACCI as secretary to purge the radicals who were not willing to accept his political direction ; INCREASED FASCITS MEMBERHSIP FROM 600000 TO 938000 increasing the number of people who saw membership of the party as a good idea and were less interested in revolution => also called all the ras to disband and now since they were not independent Mussolini gained military support for the dictatorship by increasing officer and generals’ pay and appointing the conservative Badogolio as chief of general staff - as opposed to a racial fascist

Question 65

What was the Palazzo Vidoni Pact

Answer 65

2nd October 1925 - established fascist unions as the only representative of Italy’s workers taking power away from socialist and Catholic unions ; fascists were much more subservient to the industrialists thus gaining their support for the dictatorship

Question 66

Repression and constitutional amendments between 1925/26?

Answer 66

After supposed plot to assassinate Mussolini by Zaniboni Mussolini banned PCU and introduced new press law meaning all press had to be surpervised by the state - and anither law introduced giving rights to sack any public employee who were hostile to the PNF and ability of parliament to remove PM through a vote of no confidence removed and finally in January 1926. ABILITY TO RULE BY DECFDD WITHOUT DISCUSSION WITH PARLIAMENT
ANOTHER ASSASSINATION ATTEMPT ON 31ST October 1926 - ALL POLITICAL PARTIES EXCEPT PNF NOW BANNED AND A SPECIAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE DEFENCE OF THE STATE SET UP FOR THE PROSECUTION OF ANTIFASCISTS WHO WOULD HAVE NO RIGHT TO APPEAL - AVENTINE permanent excluded and communist leader Gramsci arrested (10000 antifascists left Italy)
FINAL MOVE WAS TO REPLACE MAYORS WITH A NEW PODESTAS POSITION WHO WOULD BE APPOINTED BY LOCAL PREFECTS - THEY WERE APPOINTED BY MUSSOLINI AND THUS THEY TOOK OVER ROLE OF THE RAS
THUS DICTATORSHIP OF MUSSOLINI AND STATE NOT RADICAL FASCISTS - TURATI (NEW PNF SECRETARY) TOO ASSERTED THAT PREFECTS ABIVE RAS
THEREFORE BY END OF 1926 OND PARTY STATE WITH ALL OPPOSITION PERSECUTED BUT NOT OPPOSITION LIKE RAS WOULD HAVE WANTED BUT INSTEAD VERY PERSONALISED - IT HAD TAKEN MUSSOLINI 18 MONTHS TO ESTABLISH THIS ROLE AS IL DUCE WHICH WOULD DOMINATE BOTH ITALY AND THE PNF