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Anatomy II > The Digestive System > Flashcards

The Digestive System Flashcards

1
Q

The nutrients obtained from the food we eat are used for which processes?

A

-Building new tissues and remaining damaged ones
-Chemical energy
-Electrolyte balance

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2
Q

The digestive system is heavily reliant on which system?

A

The cardiovascular system to circulate the nutrients it obtains during the process of food breakdown

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3
Q

What are the organs of the GI tract?

A

-Mouth
-Pharynx
-Esophagus
-Stomach
-Small intestine
-Large intestine

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4
Q

What are the accessory digestive organs?

A

-Teeth
-Tongue
-Salivary glands
-Liver
-Gallbladder
-Pancreas

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5
Q

What are the functions of the digestive system?

A

-Ingestion
-Secretion
-Motility
-Digestion
-Absorption
-Defecation

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6
Q

What is ingestion?

A

taking foods and liquids into the mouth (eating)

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7
Q

What is secretion?

A

release of water, acid, buffers and enzymes into the lumen of the GI tract

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8
Q

What is motility?

A

alternating contractions and relaxations of smooth muscle in the walls of the GI tract mix food and secretions and move them towards the anus

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9
Q

What is digestion?

A

the process of breaking down ingested food into small molecules that can be used by body cells

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10
Q

What is absorption?

A

movement of the products of digestion from the GI tract into blood or lymph

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11
Q

What is defecation?

A

wastes, indigestible/unabsorbable substances, bacteria, damaged GI cells, leave the body through the anus as feces or stool

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12
Q

What is mechanical digestion?

A

teeth cut and grind food, stomach and small intestine churn the food

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13
Q

What is chemical digestion?

A

carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are broken down by hydrolysis with the aid of digestive enzymes

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14
Q

What is hydrolysis?

A

a chemical reaction between chemicals and water, leading to the decomposition of both the substance and water

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15
Q

What is the mouth/oral cavity composed of?

A

cheeks, hard and soft palates, uvula, teeth, tongue and salivary gland

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16
Q

What do the cheeks and lips contain?

A

contain a mucosal membrane and several muscles that aid in the mechanical breakdown of food (chewing)

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17
Q

What do the hard and soft palate form a barrier between?

A

form a barrier between the nasopharynx and oropharynx - this allows us to breathe while chewing

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18
Q

What closes off the nasopharynx during swallowing?

A

The uvula

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19
Q

Where are the palatine and lingual tonsils located?

A

in the oral cavity

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20
Q

What exocrine gland secretes saliva into the mouth?

A

The salivary glands

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21
Q

What is saliva?

A

a watery medium for chemical digestion to begin

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22
Q

What does saliva contain?

A

-contains digestive enzymes, antibodies, buffers, mucous and ions
-99.5% water

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23
Q

What is the function of saliva?

A

-normally, just enough saliva is secreted to keep the mouth and esophagus moist
-when food enters the mouth salivation increases to aid in lubrication and dissolution of food, chemical digestion begins

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24
Q

What is the tongue?

A

An accessory organ composed of skeletal muscle coated in a mucous membrane

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25
Q

What is the tongue attached to?

A

to the hyoid bone, temporal bones and mandible

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26
Q

What are the functions of the tongue?

A

-contains muscles that maneuver the tongue for chewing and swallowing and others that alter the shape/size of the tongue for speech and swallowing
-secretes some digestive enzymes and contains sensory receptors for both touch and taste

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27
Q

What are teeth?

A

accessory organs found in the sockets of the gums (gingivae)

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28
Q

What are the three major external regions of the teeth?

A

crown, neck, root

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29
Q

What makes up the majority of the tooth?

A

the dentin (found internally)

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30
Q

What gives teeth its shape and rigidity?

A

calcified connective tissue

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31
Q

What is the hardest substance in the body?

A

Enamel, which externally covers dentin

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32
Q

What does the pulp cavity contain?

A

The pulp cavity contains blood/lymph vessels and nerves and extends through the root canals

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33
Q

What happens in the pharynx (throat)?

A

-When food exits the mouth it enters the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx
-Muscular contractions help propel the food into the esophagus

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34
Q

What is the nasopharynx?

A

a passage for respiration

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35
Q

What are the 4 layers of the GI tract?

A

mucosa, submucosa , muscularis, serosa (listed from superficial to deep)

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36
Q

What is the mucosa?

A

inner lining, mucous membrane composed of: inner epithelium, connective tissue and thin smooth muscle

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37
Q

What is the epithelium?

A

-for secretion and absorption
-replaced every 5-7 days

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38
Q

What is the Lamina Propria?

A

connective tissue containing blood vessels and lymph vessels. Also contains lymphatic nodules involved in immunity

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39
Q

What is the submucosa?

A

-Connective tissue that binds the mucosa to the muscularis
-Contains more blood vessels, lymph vessels and a network of neurons (submucosa plexus)

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40
Q

What is the muscularis?

A

-Primarily smooth muscle.
-Breaks down and mixes food with digestive secretions, propels it along the tract.
-Contains another plexus of neurons (myenteric plexus)

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41
Q

What is the serosa?

A

-Serous membrane anchors to surrounding structure, aka the visceral peritoneum
-Esophagus has an adventitia layer instead of serosa

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42
Q

What is the enteric nervous system?

A

neurons arranged into the myenteric plexus (muscularis layer) and the submucosa plexus (submucosa layer) and connected by interneurons

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43
Q

What does the myenteric plexus regulate?

A

regulates motility

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44
Q

What does the submucosa plexus regulate?

A

regulates digestive secretions

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45
Q

Sensory neurons of the ENS contain which two types of receptors?

A

-Chemoreceptors (chemical composition of food)
-Mechanoreceptors (stretch receptors)

46
Q

What is the function of the Vagus (x) nerve for the GI system?

A

Regulates GI secretions and motility by stimulating or inhibiting ENS neurons

47
Q

What is the largest serous membrane in the body?

A

The peritoneum

48
Q

What is the parietal peritoneum?

A

lines the wall of the abdominal cavity

49
Q

What is the visceral peritoneum?

A

covers many of the organs in the cavity

50
Q

What is the peritoneal cavity?

A

The slim space between the two layers, contains serous fluid

51
Q

What are the retroperitoneal organs?

A

Organs that lie on the posterior abdominal wall and are only covered by peritoneum on their anterior surface

52
Q

What does the peritoneum contain that binds organs together?

A

large folds that weave between the viscera and bind the organs together and to the walls of the abdominal cavity

53
Q

What is the esophagus?

A

-A collapsible muscular tube approximately 25cm long that lies posterior to the trachea
-Connects from the laryngopharynx all the way down to the stomach, passes through the diaphragm in an opening called the esophageal hiatus

54
Q

What is a hiatus hernia?

A

When the stomach protrudes through the esophageal hiatus

55
Q

What is the upper esophageal sphincter?

A

-skeletal muscle
-regulates food passing from the pharynx into the esophagus

56
Q

What is the lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter

A

-smooth muscle
-regulates food passing from the esophagus to the stomach
-secretes mucous for lubrication (no digestive enzymes) and transports food into the stomach, no chemical digestion or absorption occurs

57
Q

What are the stages of swallowing (deglutition)?

A

-Voluntary Stage
-Pharyngeal Stage
-Esophageal Stage

58
Q

What occurs in the voluntary stage?

A

-bolus of food is moved to the oropharynx by the tongue

59
Q

What occurs in the pharyngeal stage?

A

-uvula and soft palate cover the nasopharynx, epiglottis covers the larynx, bolus moves from the oropharynx to the laryngopharynx
-upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, and the food enters the esophagus

60
Q

What occurs in the esophageal stage?

A

peristalsis pushes the food through the esophagus, the cardiac sphincter relaxes, and the food enters the stomach

61
Q

What is peristalsis?

A

involuntary progression of coordinated contractions and relaxations of the muscularis

62
Q

What is Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?

A

-If the lower esophageal sphincter fails to close adequately after food has entered the stomach, the stomach contents can reflux (back up) into the esophagus
-HCl can irritate the esophageal wall causing a burning sensation (heartburn)
-Certain foods and drinks can increase stomach acid secretion, worsening this problem - coffee, chocolate, fatty foods, acidic foods, etc)
-Drinking alcohol and smoking can cause relaxation of the cardiac sphincter

63
Q

Where is the stomach located?

A

Located directly inferior to the diaphragm, the stomach connects the esophagus to the duodenum

64
Q

What is the function of the stomach?

A

Functions to continue the chemical digestion of food as well as provides a reservoir for food to sit while room is made in the intestines for more food

65
Q

What is gastroenterology

A

the study of the structure, function, diagnosis and treatment of the stomach and intestines

66
Q

What are the four main regions of the stomach?

A

-Cardia: surrounds the opening of the esophagus into the stomach
-Fundus: the rounded portion superior and lateral to the cardia -Body: inferior to the fundus, the largest portion of the stomach
-Pyloric Part: inferior to the body, connects to the duodenum via the pyloric sphincter

67
Q

What are rugae?

A

Large mucosal folds on the interior wall of the stomach

68
Q

What are the secretory cells within the folds of the stomach?

A

Gastric glands

69
Q

What is gastric juice?

A

The combination of the various substances secreted by the gastric glands. Contains Mucous, pepsinogen, gastric lipase, and hydrochloride acid (HCl)

70
Q

What is propulsion?

A

Waves of peristalsis move gastric contents towards the pyloric sphincter

71
Q

What is retropulsion?

A

Since the food particles are still too large to fit through the pyloric sphincter, the contents are forced back towards the body

72
Q

What occurs in mechanical and chemical digestion in the stomach?

A

-Propulsion
-Retropulsion
-Process continues, mixing the gastric contents and gastric juice until the food liquifies into chyme
-Once the food particles in chyme are small enough, they can pass through the pyloric sphincter, gastric emptying
-H+ and Cl- are pumped into the stomach separately but unite to create the HCL in gastric juice
-Different enzymes are responsible for digesting different types of food

73
Q

What is HCL secretion stimulated by?

A

-Acetylcholine (ACh): released by parasympathetic neurons
-Gastrin: released by cells within the stomach
-Histamine: paracrine hormone released by mast cells in the stomach, acts synergistically with gastrin and ACh

74
Q

What is the pancreas made up of?

A

-Made up of small clusters of glandular epithelial cells
-The majority of these cells (99%) are exocrine and called acini cells
-The remaining cells (1%) are the endocrine islet cells that secrete insulin and glucagon

75
Q

What do acini cells do?

A

Secrete pancreatic juices (digestive enzymes) into ducts that empty into the duodenum of the small intestine

76
Q

What are pancreatic juices composed of?

A

-Composed mostly of water, salts, sodium bicarbonate and several digestive enzymes
-Bicarb helps to buffer the acidity in chyme and helps adjust the pH in the small intestine

77
Q

What do the enzymes of the pancreas do?

A

-Heavily involved in the digestion of proteins, triglycerides and starches within the small intestine
-Inactive and must be activated in the GI tract in order to carry out their functions, or they would cause damage to the pancreas itself

78
Q

What is the second largest organ?

A

The liver

79
Q

Where is the liver located?

A

Inferior to the diaphragm, occupies the entire URQ of the abdomen

80
Q

Where is the gallbladder located?

A

Pear-shaped sac located in a depression of the posterior surface of the liver

81
Q

What are the functions of the liver and gallbladder combined?

A

-Secretion of bile
-Regulating glucose metabolism
-Lipid and protein metabolism
-Processing drugs and hormones
-Excreting bilirubin
-Storage of many substances
-Phagocytosis
-Activation of Vit D

82
Q

What are hepatocytes?

A

-Main functional cells of the liver and perform a wide variety of functions including the secretion of bile
-Arrange into single layers that are bordered by highly permeable blood capillaries called hepatic sinusoids

83
Q

What are hepatic sinusoids?

A

Hepatocytes arrange into single layers that are bordered by these highly permeable blood capillaries

84
Q

What are hepatic macrophages?

A

Within the hepatic sinusoids, phagocytize worn out RBCs/WBCs and foreign substances

85
Q

What is the common hepatic duct?

A

Between the hepatocytes are tiny ducts that collect bile and carry it to this duct

86
Q

What is the common bile duct?

A

The common hepatic duct merges with the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form this duct - which delivers bile to the duodenum

87
Q

What is the portal triad?

A

-Branch of hepatic artery
-Branch of hepatic portal vein
-Bile duct

88
Q

What does the hepatic artery do?

A

Supplies oxygenated blood from the heart

89
Q

What does the hepatic portal vein do?

A

Brings deoxygenated blood rich in newly absorbed nutrients, drugs, microbes and toxins from the GI tract to the liver

90
Q

How does the liver and gallbladder get blood supply?

A

-Hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein supply blood to the hepatic sinusoids where oxygen, nutrients and certain toxic substances are taken by the hepatocytes
-Products manufactured by the hepatocytes, and nutrients needed by other cells are returned to the blood, which eventually drains into the central vein and then the hepatic vein

91
Q

What is bile?

A

an olive-green liquid with an alkaline pH that is composed mostly of water, bile salts, cholesterol, phospholipid, bile pigments and ions
-when hepatic macrophages phagocytize RBCs, it releases iron, globin and bilirubin (from the heme ring) - the iron and globin are recycled, and the bilirubin is secreted into bile (yellow in color)
-more bile is secreted while digestion is occurring
-between meals, when the entrance to the duodenum closes, excess bile is rerouted and stored in the gallbladder for future use

92
Q

What are the functions of the liver and gallbladder?

A

-Lipid Metabolism
-Protein Metabolism
-Processing of Drugs and Hormones
-Excretion of Bilirubin
-Synthesis of Bile Salts
-Storage: glycogen, many vitamins and minerals
-Phagocytosis: aged RBCs/WBCs and some antigens
-Activation of Vitamin D

93
Q

What is lipid metabloism?

A

Triglyceride storage and breakdown of fatty acids

94
Q

What is protein metabolism?

A

metabolize digestive proteins and synthesize many plasma proteins

95
Q

Excretion of Bilirubin

A

excreted into bile to be metabolized in the small intestine

96
Q

What is jaundice?

A

-a yellowish discoloration of the skin, sclera, and mucous membranes due to an accumulation of bilirubin
-indicates some form of hepatic impairment

97
Q

What are gallstones (aka cholelithiasis)?

A

-If the bile composition of bile salts and cholesterol is imbalanced (more cholesterol than bile salts) the cholesterol may crystallize and form gallstones
-Stones may impair or obstruct the flow of bile from the gallbladder to the duodenum

98
Q

What are the three segments of the small intestine?

A

Duodenum - shortest section
Jejunum - middle section
Ileum - final and longest section. Connects to the large intestine via the ileocecal sphincter

99
Q

True or False:
The small intestine plays little to no role in digestion

A

False:
The majority of chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine

100
Q

What does the small intestine contain?

A

-Cells that line the small intestine secrete digestive enzymes, secrete mucous and absorb nutrients
-Walls are arranged in circular folds, villi and microvilli that maximally increase the surface area for digestion and absorption
-Contains an abundance of lymphatic tissues and nodules for immunity

101
Q

What occurs in mechanical digestion in the small intestine?

A

Segmentation:
-Churning/mixing of chyme and digestive juices in an isolated and distended region of the small intestine
-This process allows for more contact time between the chyme and the absorption cells
-After sufficient absorption has occurred, peristalsis pushes the chyme onwards in the GI tract

102
Q

What occurs in chemical digestion in the small intestine?

A

-Chyme is further broken down in the small intestine with the help of intestinal juices, bile and pancreatic juice
-A wide variety of different enzymes are responsible for the specific breakdowns of different substances (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids)

103
Q

What occurs in absorption in the small intestine?

A

-Once the food particles are small enough they are absorbed through the epithelial tissue, this process occurs by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport
-Anything that does not get absorbed or has not been digested yet continues to the large intestine

104
Q

What substances are absorbed by the small intestine?

A

-monosaccharides
-amino acids
-lipids
-bile salts
-electrolytes
-vitamins
-water

105
Q

What are the functions on the large intestine?

A

Responsible for completion of absorption, production of vitamins, and the formation and elimination of feces

106
Q

Where do the small and large intestine meet?

A

ileocecal sphincter

107
Q

The ileocecal sphincter opens up into the first of which 4 major regions of the large intestine?

A

-Cecum: lies inferior to the ileocecal sphincter (location of appendix)
-Colon: ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
-Rectum: small segment at the end of the colon
-Anal canal: terminal 2-3cm, highly vascular (opening of the anal canal to the exterior - anus)

108
Q

What is the majority of absorption that occurs in the large intestine?

A

water absorption

109
Q

What is the appendix?

A

found just inferior to the secum, purpose isn’t completely understood but it is thought to have once been functional lymphatic tissue

110
Q

What occurs in mechanical digestion in the large intestine?

A

-The ileocecal sphincter is normally partially open to allow for slow passage of chyme into the large intestine
-Following a meal, the peristalsis in the ileum forces chyme in to the cecum while hormones relax the sphincter
-The presence of substances in the cecum begin the peristalsis and similar contractions that continue to churn the chyme and progress it along the tract

111
Q

What occurs in chemical digestion in the large intestine?

A

-No digestive enzymes are secreted in the large intestine. Instead, mucous and bacteria prepare the chyme by fermenting any remaining substances
-This can produce hydrogen, carbon and methane gas which occupy the large intestine
-The bacteria break down some substances and transport them to the liver, where they are further broken down and eventually excreted in urine
-Certain vitamins are also absorbed in the colon
-Chyme remains in the large intestine for 3-10 hours and has the remaining water absorbed, this solidifies the chyme converting it to feces

112
Q

What is the defecation reflex?

A

-Peristaltic movements push feces from the sigmoid colon into the rectum
-The distension of the rectal wall stimulates stretcher receptors that trigger the defecation reflex
-Sensory nerve impulses travel from the stretch receptors to the spinal cord where the reflex is integrated and motor impulses are sent to shorten the rectum (increasing pressure)
-This increased pressure, along with coordination of abdominal muscles and the diaphragm, force open the internal anal sphincter
-The external anal sphincter is under voluntary control

Anatomy II (8 decks)

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