The Creation of a Fascist Dictatorship (1922-1926) Flashcards
Who made up Mussolini’s government? Why was it called a ‘National Government’?
- 4 fascists (including Mussolini)
- 4 liberals
- 2 PPI members
- 1 ANI member
- 3 independents
- It was coalition of right-wing groups
In what other way were the fascists outnumbered?
- Only 35 deputies out of 535 were fascists in the Chamber of Deputies
- The PSI still had the most seats; 123
How did Mussolini distribute roles in his government?
- He appointed himself Foreign Minister and Minister of the Interior
- He appointed Alberto de Stefani as Minister of Finance
- He appointed Stefano Cavazzoni as Minster of Work and Welfare
Why was Mussolini’s decision to appoint de Stefani important?
- De Stefani was an orthodox economist
- It helped win the support of conservative industrialists as they could see that there would be no radical economic changes
Why was the appointment of Cavazzoni significant?
- He was a PPI member, so after his appointment he encouraged the rest of the party to work with Mussolini
- Other Catholic politicians then did do this
What were 2 other ways Mussolini tried to gain the Catholic Church’s trust?
- He increased clerical pay
- He reinstated crucifixes in schools
What were 6 features of Mussolini’s first speech as prime minister in November 1922?
- It was a mixture of offers to work with parliament as well as threats of violence to any who disagreed with him
- He threatened to close down the Italian parliament
- He credited the king for preventing civil war by not introducing martial law
- He emphasised the role of the Catholic Church within society
- He promised to uphold the law (even against fascist violence) and constitutional liberties
- He demanded emergency powers for a year to deal with the existing political and economic issues
How many in the Chamber of Deputies voted to grant Mussolini emergency powers?
- 306: 116 voted in favour (mainly socialists and communists voted against)
Why did the Chamber of Deputies grant Mussolini emergency powers, and for how long?
- Due to the combination of his threats and promises
- 1 year
List 3 other reasons why liberals agreed to give Mussolini emergency powers.
- They wanted an end to ineffective coalition governments
- They believed they could influence/ control Mussolini
- They believed only the fascists could put an end to socialism
List the 2 main powers that having emergency powers gave Mussolini.
- He had full power to govern without parliamentary approval
- He could not be removed by parliament in this period of time
How did Mussolini deal with the ANI?
- In February 1923 the ANI was officially absorbed into the PNF
When did the PPI begin to decline? What were 3 reasons why?
- In July 1923 Luigi Sturzo resigned due to his concerns that the PPI was being too absorbed into the PNF
- Mussolini’s pro-Catholic policies encouraged the Vatican to support the PNF at the expense of the PPI
- Due to the lack of support from the Vatican and the absence of Sturzo’s leadership, the party began to decline
List 2 ways that the PNF threatened Mussolini’s position, and explain them.
- Fascist violence ran the risk of losing Mussolini support from the liberal elite and the middle classes, especially since the likelihood of a socialist revolution happening was very low, so it was viewed as no longer being necessary by many Italians
- Support for the PNF was now also coming primarily from the middle classes
- The ras and squadristi wanted to shut down all political parties and the Italian parliament, but Mussolini was against revolution and illegal actions
- He wanted to take control legally and supported ‘normalisation’ (returning to normal legal methods of doing politics)
What were the 2 organisations Mussolini created to control the PNF, and when was each created?
- The Grand Council of Fascism, December 1922
- The MVSN, January 1923
What was the Grand Council of Fascism? Give 2 details.
- It was a body of leading fascists such as Balbo, De Bono and Bianchi who were all chosen by Mussolini
- It was a rival organisation to the cabinet
List 3 purposes of the Grand Council of Fascism.
- Mussolini used it to exert his control over the party as he controlled appointments, and as it was the supreme body of the PNF, Mussolini controlled the whole party by extension
- It created policy instead of the elected parliament, and bypassed it
- It helped Mussolini overcome his weak position in the cabinet
What happened to De Vecchi, and why?
- Mussolini sent him to govern Italian Somaliland
- He had continued to support the use of violence against political opponents
What was the MVSN? Give 4 details.
- The Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale; Fascist Militia
- This organised the 300,000 existing squadristi into a party-based paramilitary force that were paid directly by the state
- Their job was to support the army and police ‘to defend the fascist revolution’
- They swore an oath of allegiance to Mussolini and Italy (not the king or government)
What did the creation of the MVSN mean for the ras? Give 2 details.
- They were replaced by former army officers
- More than 200 were expelled from the party
What other organisation did Mussolini create, and who led it?
- The Cheka; his secret personal bodyguard
- Amerigo Dumini
Give figures for the increase in support for the PNF.
- Members:
- October 1922: 300,000
- end of 1923: 780,000
What was the Acerbo Law?
- It proposed that the party with the most votes (provided it had over 25%) would gain two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies
- The remaining one-third of the seats would be distributed in the same proportion that the rest of the parties won seats in
What were 3 reasons why Mussolini wanted to pass the Acerbo Law?
- If he could win the most seats, he would have a clear majority in the Chamber of Deputies
- Many local governments were dominated by fascists, so fascist squads could be used to fix elections
- Mussolini could stop the police from acting against this as he was minister of the interior
How did the vote for the Acerbo Law go?
- 235 for
- 139 against
When was the Acerbo Law passed?
- July 1923
What were 4 reasons why the Chamber of Deputies voted in favour of the Acerbo Law?
- Liberals felt that this would end political instability
- They felt it would undermine support for the socialists as they struggled to build links with other political groups (for the electoral lists)
- Mussolini threatened to close down the Chamber of Deputies and use his emergency powers if the Acerbo Law wasn’t passed
- He managed to have armed Blackshirts present within the Chamber of Deputies and wore a black shirt himself when Acerbo’s proposals were being discussed
Who (both inside and outside of the Chamber of Deputies) supported the Acerbo Law?
- Liberal elites such as Giolitti, Salandra and Orlando
- The King
- The Catholic Church
Why did the Catholic Church support the Acerbo Law, and what impact did this have within the Chamber of Deputies?
- Mussolini had passed laws favourable to the Catholic Church
- This put pressure on the PPI to abstain from voting
Who was against the Acerbo Law?
- The PCI and PSI
After the Acerbo Law was passed, what did Mussolini do next?
- He called for elections in April 1924
What 3 things did the fascists do to increase the number of seats they won?
- They included prominent right-wing liberals on their electoral list, such as Salandra
- Blackshirts destroyed hundreds of opposition clubs and even murdered Antonio Piccinini, a PSI candidate
- Ballot rigging
By the time of the 1924 elections, who was against Mussolini?
- PCI
- PSI
- PPI
- Liberals who refused to work with the fascists, such as Giolitti
How effective were Mussolini’s opponents at working together?
- They were unable to come to an agreement to work together against the PNF and its allies
What percentage of the vote did the PNF win?
- 66% (the Acerbo Law was therefore irrelevant)
How many votes did opposition parties gain?
- 2.5 million
How many seats did the PNF have now compared to before?
- 374 from 35
What were 3 ways in which Mussolini still didn’t have absolute power?
- Laws still had to be approved
- Opposition parties still existed
- The King could still dismiss him
What happened when parliament was reopened in May after the elections?
- Giacomo Matteotti, a leading socialist, presented evidence that fascist violence and terror had impacted the results of the election in the Chamber of Deputies
- He called for these results to be annulled, and for new elections to be held
What happened to Matteotti?
- 11 days after his speech he was kidnapped and stabbed to death
- His body was found over 2 months later outside of Rome
What was known about Matteotti’s murder, and what were 2 impacts of this?
- Witnesses had seen Matteotti being dragged into Mussolini’s press secretary’s car
- 2 days later, Amerigo Dumini was arrested as the leader of the kidnapping
- Cesare Rossi (Mussolini’s press secretary) was also arrested
How did Mussolini react to accusations about his involvement in Matteotti’s murder?
- He denied any involvement or prior knowledge
What 3 groups threatened Mussolini after Matteotti’s murder, and how?
- The old established elite were hesitant about backing a prime minister who was associated with murder
- The PSI, PCI and other anti-fascist political parties were calling for his dismissal and the overthrow of the fascist government
- The ras saw Matteotti’s murder as the first step in a fascist revolution that would violently create a dictatorship
What did some opposition MPs do in response to Matteotti’s murder?
- They withdrew from the Chamber of Deputies and formed a rival parliament known as the ‘Aventine Secession’
Who were the main MPs in the Aventine Secession?
- They were mostly communists, socialists and PPI members
What did the deputies who made up the Aventine Secession hope to achieve, and how successful were they? Give 2 details.
- They hoped their actions would convince the King to dismiss Mussolini
- The King refused to dismiss him as he did not want left-wing parties to gain more influence and power, possibly leading to civil war
- After this and also due to their differences in political ideology, they could not agree on what they should do, and therefore posed no threat to Mussolini
How did Mussolini react when it became clear the King would not dismiss him, and why?
- As he also had the backing of the Pope, army, and business and political elites as they believed there was no better alternative than him, he regained his confidence as he knew he wouldn’t be removed
How did the existence of the Aventine Secession work in Mussolini’s favour?
- The absence of the 100 deputies who had formed the Aventine Secession made it easier for Mussolini to pass legislation through parliament
What 2 things did Mussolini do to strengthen his position after the murder of Matteotti, and what was the reaction to this?
- July 1924: press censorship was introduced
- August 1924: opposition political parties/ groups were banned from having any meetings
- Leading liberals such as Giolitti, Salandra and Orlando became openly critical of Mussolini
What did Mussolini do to reassure the political elites?
- He appointed the nationalists Luigi Federzoni and Alfred Rocco as minister of the interior and justice minister
What did Mussolini do in November 1924?
- Under pressure from the army, he ordered the PNF to stop all violence and remove any members who were undisciplined
What 2 events happened in December 1924?
- Salandra announced his opposition to Mussolini
- 33 leading fascists later met with Mussolini and demanded that he create a dictatorship, or else they would remove him as leader of the PNF
What event had angered leading fascists before December 1924?
- The dismissal of Emilio De Bono (a leading ras) as chief of the police due to his involvement with the murder of Matteotti
What did Mussolini do on 3rd January 1925, and what were 2 reasons why?
- He announced the creation of the fascist dictatorship under himself specifically, rather than under the PNF
- He was under pressure from both the PNF and the fact that Salandra could influence the King into removing him
What were 2 other things Mussolini did in January 1925?
- He formed a new cabinet without most of the liberals
- He appointed himself minister of foreign affairs, war, navy and aviation
What did Mussolini do in February 1925?
- He appointed Farinacci as the PNF secretary
List 2 things Farinacci did in his role of party secretary.
- He purged radicals who disagreed with Mussolini’s political direction
- He increased membership to 938,000
How did Mussolini gain the support of the army? Give 2 details.
- He increased the pay of officers and generals
- He appointed the conservative monarchist Pietro Badoglio as chief of general staff (the army feared he would appoint a radical fascist in to the role)
How did Mussolini gain the support of industrialists? Give 2 details.
- In October 1925, he declared the official fascist unions as the only representatives of Italy’s workers, but these fascist unions were much more subservient to industrialists
- Their existence also took power away from socialist and Catholic unions
What did the Grand Council of Fascism do in October 1925?
- They forced ras to disband any squads that still existed and join the MVSN
What were 4 changes made in December 1925?
- Mussolini became known as ‘Il Duce’ (leader) instead of prime minister, and became the head of government (this meant he was only accountable to the king)
- Parliament’s ability to remove the prime minister through a vote of no-confidence was removed
- All journalists were required to have their names on a central register controlled by the fascists before they could look for employment
- The ‘Leggi Fascistissime’ were passed (a series of laws)
What were 4 aspects of the Leggi Fascistissime?
- It banned all political parties and organisations (such as non-fascist trade unions)
- Tightened press censorship
- Set up the OVRA (secret police)
- Set up the Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State (a special court for political crimes)
What happened in January 1926? Give figures.
- Mussolini gained the power to pass laws by personal decree
- He passed over 2000 decrees in this month alone
What happened in February 1926? Give 2 reasons why this was important.
- Elected mayors were replaced by the new position of podestà, who were appointed by local prefects
- These prefects were elected by Mussolini
- This confirmed that prefects had the most important regional position rather than the ras
What events did Mussolini use as an excuse to introduce the laws that turned Italy into a dictatorship? Give 2 examples and figures.
- Assassination attempts against him:
- 1925: socialist deputy Tito Zaniboni
- 3 in 1926, one of which was by Gino Lucetti, an anarchist
In what 2 ways did Mussolini capitalise off of Zaniboni’s actions?
- He banned his party, the PSU (Unitary Socialist Party)
- This also led to the creation of the Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State
What did Mussolini do in 1928 to finally consolidate his power?
- The King lost his right to choose the PM
- From then on, the Grand Council of Fascism (which was controlled by Mussolini) would draw up a list of possible candidates for the King to choose from
