Mussolini and the Development of Fascism (c.1919-1922) Flashcards
What were 3 significant things Mussolini did before and at the start of the war?
- In 1910 he wrote an anti-clerical book, ‘The Cardinal’s Mistress’ with the pen name ‘Sincere Heretic’
- He was the editor of ‘Avanti!’ the socialist newspaper, until he was removed for having an interventionalist stance in 1914
- He then began to write ‘Il Popolo d’Italia’, an interventionalist newspaper
How had the First World War influenced Mussolini? Give 3 details.
- He had been a socialist before the war, but during and after the war he had become more right-wing
- He now wanted to establish a movement led by ex-soldiers, the ‘trinceristi’, who wanted to create the Italy they had been fighting for
- Mussolini had seen how war brought people together, and called this ‘trincerocrazia’; the rule of the trenches
- This was a state where class, geographical and rural and urban divisions did not exist, as men were all fighting for Italy and for each other
What did Mussolini do in March 1919?
- He called together the representatives of 20 ex-soldiers’ leagues, and formed the ‘Fasci di Combattimento’/ ‘Fasci’
What was a fascio (plural fasci)? Give 2 details.
- An ancient Roman emblem symbolising strength through unity
- In terms of politics, it had been used by the left-wing first, and was therefore associated with them
What was Mussolini’s party programme like in 1919, and what influenced it?
- Although it was quite vague, it was influenced by his socialist beliefs
List 10 aspects of Mussolini’s party programme in 1919.
- Anti-clericalism; confiscation of church property
- Republicanism
- Abolition of the titles of the nobility
- Female suffrage
- Nationalisation of the arms industry
- Progressive taxation
- Confiscation of the large profits made by some companies during the war
- Abolition of the senate
- Minimum wage
- 8 hour working day
What was the problem with Mussolini’s party programme?
- It did not distinguish him from other left-wing parties such as the PSI
What were 2 advantages of Mussolini’s party programme?
- It was vague, so attracted support across different classes as it didn’t tend to alienate anyone
- Those disillusioned with other parties found something they could agree with
How did Mussolini capitalise on public attitudes in his party programme? Give 3 details.
- He took advantage of people’s negative thoughts about:
- the growth of socialism
- the weakness of the political system and therefore democracy
- the Treaty of Versailles and the ‘mutilated victory’
How popular was fascism in 1919? Give 2 details. However, why was this changing?
- Not very as there were only 4000 active supporters of it by the end of the year and they had won 0 seats in the election
- Most of these people were either ex-soldiers or were based in towns or cities
- However, its popularity was increasing, mainly through Mussolini’s newspaper (Il Popolo d’Italia)
Where did the idea of the ‘Blackshirts’ come from?
- The ‘arditi’; talented soldiers in WW1, who had worn a black uniform that distinguished them from everyone else
- This was then adopted by the fascists
What was the squadrismo and who were the squadristi?
- Squadrismo was the movement of small fascist military units/ squads
- The squadristi were the members of these squads
How were the squadristi organised? How could they be recognised?
- They were organised into military units under a commanding officer; a ‘ras’
- They all wore black shirts and usually carried a revolver and a club
What did the squadristi do, why and how far did this extend?
- They fought the ‘socialist threat’ using extreme violence
- They believed that socialists and communists were as big of an enemy as Austria-Hungary was
- This included socialists land leagues that fought for land reform
Give 2 figures on squadristi violence.
- In April 1919 they torched the Milan offices of Avanti!
- In the first 5 months of 1921, they killed 200 people and wounded 1000
How did public officials respond to squadristi violence? Give 2 details.
- The police, army and government ignored it due to their fears of a socialist revolution
- The police and army actually supplied them with weapons
What 2 things did squadristi violence and the reaction to it show Mussolini?
- He saw that the government would not stop him due to their fear of socialism
- He also saw that what the squadristi were doing was popular among the middle classes, and even the military
List 3 actions Mussolini took as a result of the popularity of squadristi violence.
- After seeing that they wouldn’t be stopped, he encouraged more armed squads to form
- After seeing whose support he had, he made the fascist movement more right-wing
- He claimed that just as the fascists had saved Italy from Austria-Hungary, they were also saving the country from internal enemies
In response to fascism’s shift to the right-wing, which 3 policies did Mussolini abandon?
- Republicanism (in 1920)
- Anti-clericalism
- Female suffrage
How popular were the fascists in 1921? Give 3 details.
- In the 1921 general election, they won 35 seats
- This was a huge improvement from the last election
- However, the PSI still had the most votes
What was the ‘dual policy’? What were 2 aspects of it?
- In 1921, Mussolini wanted to support squadristi violence on one hand, but also wanted to become a respectable politician, so he needed to take a dualistic approach
- This also opened up 2 avenues that he needed to choose between: seizing power through force, or through parliamentary means
- Supporters of fascism were also split into 2 groups: the more radical, revolutionary members, and those who were more conservative and wanted to gain power through parliament
What was the Pact of Pacification, and what was its 3 purposes?
- In July 1921, Mussolini called an end to squadristi violence and signed a pact with the socialist trade unions
- He hoped this would cause the Catholics and liberals in parliament to make a deal with him to prevent him from joining with the socialists
- He wanted to maintain the support of more conservative fascists, who did not want the violence to be taken too far
- Mussolini also hoped to benefit from this by appearing to be the peacemaker
What were 2 reactions to the pact?
- Neither the liberals nor the Catholics approached Mussolini
- The 3 most powerful ras bosses (Grandi, Balbo and Farinacci) condemned the pact and squadristi across the country called for an end to it
What did the ras’ reaction to the pact show Mussolini?
- He had overestimated his ability to control the ras
How did Mussolini respond to the ras, and what 2 things did this situation eventually show? What happened in the end?
- He resigned
- He had been really effective at leading the fascists
- In his absence, there was no effective leader (d’Annunzio had been asked but had refused to lead the fascists), so Mussolini had demonstrated how crucial he was to the movement
- He eventually returned
What happened to the Pact of Pacification in the end?
- When Mussolini returned, he abandoned the pact
When did the fascists form a political party, and what was it called?
- October 1921
- It was called the Partito Nazionale Fascista, the PNF
List 3 advantages the creation of the PNF had for Mussolini.
- The movement became more organised
- Mussolini was able to better consolidate his position
- The fascists were more ‘respectable’ now, so they were more likely to be included in government coalitions
How popular was the PNF, and why?
- Membership grew quickly: 200,000 in 1921, and 300,000 in 1922
- It became the party of the middle classes
When was the ‘New Programme’ adopted? List 5 aspects of it.
- November 1921
It included points such as: - proportional taxation
- obligatory military service
- 8 hour working day, except when there was a need for more
- national needs come before the rights of citizens
- expansion of Italy’s influence in the Mediterranean
List 6 groups the PNF appealed to.
- The petite bourgeoisie
- Rich landowners
- Industrialists
- Workers
- Peasant farmers
- Young Italians, particularly students
Who were the petite bourgeoisie, why did they support the PNF, and how many of them tended to?
- They were people such as shopkeepers, artisans, small merchants, business owners and landowners, low-ranking civil servants, teachers and so on
- They felt that their position was threatened by the proletariat/ peasantry, and had a fear of falling back into that class
- In the example of the Arezzo squadristi, they made up 50%
- In 1921, they made up 24% of the Fascist Party’s membership
What were 2 reasons why industrialists and rich landowners supported the PNF?
- They were against socialism and wanted to break union power
- They were also against higher taxation, which they believed the PSI would implement
Why did some peasants and workers support the PNF?
- They disliked the fact that the socialists used violence against them if they did not want to join a strike
How popular was the PNF amongst young Italians, and what were 2 reasons why?
- At one time, between 12 and 13% of Italian students were members of the PNF
- They saw the PNF as new and dynamic in comparison with the old, corrupt liberal government
- Many found the militant tendencies of fascism appealing
What 4 things did almost all supporters of the PNF have in common?
- Strong patriotism
- A hatred of socialism
- A hatred of the weak liberal government
- A belief in Mussolini’s ability to make a new Italy that was strong and united
When were fascist syndicates created and what were 3 reasons why they existed?
- They existed from the early 1920s
- Workers joined these syndicates usually out of necessity in order to gain employment
- The fascists had broken up many Catholic and socialist trade unions earlier in the decade, so many had no better alternative
- Industrialists accepted these as they were moving workers away from socialism
