The Collapse Of Liberal Italy 1915-22 (Complete) Flashcards
What is the timeline of this section?
-1909 (Sep); Mussolini begins work as PSI member
-1912 (Sep); Mussolini begins work at PSI Avanti!
(Oct); Mussolini expelled from Fascist party (Nov); Il Popolo d’Italia founded
-1915 (May); Italy signs Treaty of London
-1917 (Nov); Battle of Caporetto defeat: Austria sent entire army & 7 German divisions to Italian front, humiliating defeat (40k dead, 300k prisoner, retreated 150km)
-1918 (Oct); Vittorio Veneto victory, Austria sign armistice
-1919 (Jan); start of Bienno Rosso (Mar); formation of fasci di combattimento (Sep); D’Annunzio seized Fiume
-1920 (Sep); wave of factory occupations: electrical victories for socialists
-1921 (May); electoral alliance: 35 fascists elected incl Mussolini (Aug); Pact of Pacification betw fascists & socialists (Oct); PNF formed (Nov); Mussolini elected leader of PNF
-1922 (Jul-Aug); general strike broken up by fascist violence (Oct); March on Rome, Mussolini becomes PM
What were the main problems of the time period?
-Anger; over mutated victory, weak gov, war profiteers, pacifist socialists, etc
-Fear; of socialist revolution
-Expectation; of new & dynamic Italy (reforms promised by Libs after Caporetto, workers’ power, land reform, greater Italy
Why was there a ‘mutilated victory’?
-Italy on winning side of war but not rewarded w/ what they’d been promised
-Only got Tyrol & Istria
-Cost of the war were very high
Mutilated victory; how many soldiers were conscripted and why were they at a disadvantage?
-5m conscripted
-Fought bravely but were ill equipped/trained & forced to fight war of attrition
Mutilated victory; what were the casualties of the war?
-600,000 dead+
-450,000 permanently disabled
-500,000 seriously injured
-More than 2.5m soldiers demobilised
Mutilated victory- economic implications; how much did the war cost?
-148m lire over 3 years (2x of unification)
-Gov spent 23b lire more than had collected in taxes
Mutilated victory- economic implications; what were the inflation and prices figures due to the war?
-High inflation (400%)
-prices x4
Mutilated victory- economic implications; by how much did wages drop due to the war?
25%
Mutilated victory- economic implications; whose savings were destroyed as a result of the war?
The middle classes
Mutilated victory- economic implications; how was trade impacted due to the war?
Was ruined
Mutilated victory- economic implications; what figure did unemployment reach due to the war?
2 million
Mutilated victory- economic implications; by how much did the national debate rise and why?
-From 16b to 85b
-Due to heavy loans from GB & USA
Mutilated victory; why did Italians believe their suffering would be rewarded?
The government had promised soldiers that their families would get land, jobs, pensions,medical treatment
Mutilated victory; what did Catholics think of the war effort?
Supportive, but also remained supportive of Catholic Austria
North/South divide worsening due to war; how did the North prosper even still?
-Industries linked to war production like steel, chemicals & motor production did very well before 1918 as guaranteed large state contracts & inflation not issue since could raise prices in correspondence
-Companies like Fiat remained successful to point where it became largest manufacturer in Europe
Mutilated victory; how did the North/South divide worsen for the South due to the war?
-Was predominantly agricultural & couldn’t share prosperity
-This was because farming was negatively hit by conscription in large numbers, to prevent spread of Bolshevism, gov promised programme of land reform for after war
-Southerners found it hard to fight at north-eastern border for sake of few Italian speaking towns
Mutilated victory; what discredited the parliamentary system?
Unemployment, demobilised soldiers, civil unrest, gov debt, inflation
Mutilated victory; why were ex-soldiers drawn to Fascist squads?
They missed comradeship (Trincerismo) of trenches
Mutilated victory; what was wrong with the government’s policies?
They would appease one group but alienate another
Mutilated victory; what were the socialists inspired by?
The 1917 Russian Revolution
Mutilated victory; why did the Bourgeoise become increasingly bitter & what was the result of this?
-Had no muscle to press for higher wages, unlike unions
-Savings were hit due to inflation, as were real wages
-Became increasingly bitter → natural recruiting ground for fascists
Mutilated victory; what did Italy want from the peace treaties & what were the terms instead?
-Demanded ridiculous amount of Terra Irredenta, also portion of German colonies
-Gained no African territories & Dalmatia/ -Fiume were given to Yugoslavia to help develop it
-Italy’s long term opponent, Austria, had been defeated & empire dismantled; Italy left dominant power in Adriatic
Fascism; who were the Arditti & how were they set up?
-Daring, ruthless commando fighters who faced death every day
-1919; Arditti set up by futurist in Rome= national association of the Arditti
Fascism; who was the main leader and enemy of fascism?
-Mussolini (had set up the Fasci Di Combattimento & had sworn oath to kill & die for Italy)
-Communism; fear of same revolution as Russia
Socialism; what happened in the Battle of Mercanti? (1919)
-100,000 socialists met by fascists at football stadium; socialists parade w/ flags, fascists march, gunfire as fascists attack
-Socialist newspaper ‘Avanti’, fascists threw printing presses out of windows, set buildings on fire
-Began as series of riots, demonstrations, strikes (more than 10 a day in May)
-Socialists set up ‘Soviet Republic’ in Florence June 1919, ex-soldiers marched countryside taking over land
Socialism; what was Giolitti’s opinion on socialism/fascism + the battle?
-Backed fascism, hated socialism; happy to see them destroyed
-Believed they were safer revolting in factories then streets, urged landowners/ employers to make concessions
Fiume; who was D’Annunzio and what did he do?
- Poet & nationalist
-Invaded port of Fiume (given to new country of Yugoslavia after WW1, Irredenta), w/ 2000 men
What occurred in the 1919 Seizure of the Fiume and how/when did it end?
-D’Annunzio invades the Fiume port w/ 2000 men
-The small town gave way w/out fight; occupied for 13 months undisturbed, seen as exciting place to live
-D’Annunzio raided cargo ships & towns across border for money
- Dec of 1920; weak inefficient gov order navy to bomb D’Annunzio out (leave Jan 1921)
Fiume; how was Mussolini inspired by the events of Fiume in 1919?
-Gave him great encouragement as he realised he could gain power through armed forces & daring, took notes of theatrical trappings;
Black shirts of arditti
-Ancient Roman salute
-Parades
-Balcony speeches
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; how did union membership rise from 1918-20?
From 250,000 to 2,000,000
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; what were the unemployment and inflation stats?
-Unemployment; 2,000,000
-Inflation; 400%
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; who were the maximalists?
Radicals who revolution to enact full programme & overthrow system
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; who were the minimalists?
Wanted peaceful reforms, believing full socialism would come naturally
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; what could those around Ferreira and Bologna only find work through?
CGL; labour confederation
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; who were the PCI and when were they formed?
-Italian Communist Party
-1921
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; who were the CGL & who were they challenged by?
-Labour confederation
-Challenged by Catholic CIL (confederation of workers)
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; what did the socialists proclaim when interrupting the King’s speech in 1919?
“Long live the Socialist republic”, waved socialist flags
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; what were the strategies occurring in these years?
-PSI was weak in South but land occupations taking place
-Peasant organisations & TU holding strikes in factories & land occupations
-Agricultural unions attempting to monopolise labour supply, to force employers to employ workers
-Socialists used violence & intimidated peasants & workers who didn’t co-operate (victims would later support fascism)
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; what event occurred with the workers in September 1920?
-About 500,000 workers respond to lockout threat by occupying 300 factories in Turin & Milan, running them for a month
-Red flags flew w/ armed ‘guards’
-Giolitti took neutral position & both sides withdrew eventually
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; what happened to strike & mass unemployment figures after 1920 & what remained despite this?
-Number fell
-Fear of Bolshevism remained
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; who posed the greatest threat after the 1919 elections but why weren’t they effective?
-PSI
-Couldn’t co-operate/plan effectively
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; what did many people fear?
The “dictatorship of the proletariat”
Bienno Rosso “Red two years” 1918-20; what did ex-soldiers feel bitter about?
The pacifist socialists
Who was Mussolini before leading the fascists?
-Teacher, soldier, journalist, strike organiser
-Socialist & worked for Avanti!
-Conscripted soldier who enjoyed Trincerismo
Why was Mussolini expelled and what did he then set up?
-For promoting WW1 intervention
-Set up own ‘Il Popolo d’Italia’; claimed it was the newspaper of combatants & producers (soldiers, farmers, factory workers), setting them apart from socialists & liberal politicians
When, where and who did Mussolini make his first key speech to?
-Milan
-March 1919
-To 118 people “Fascists of the First Hour”
What was Mussolini’s primary aim and what did he promise to establish?
-Aim; gain power & restore Italy to greatness
-Promised to establish law & order, develop country
Where was the Fasci di combattimento established and what was it overshadowed by?
-Around 70 towns
-Overshadowed by seizure of Fiume
How many members did the Fasci di combattimento have by 1919 and why did it lose votes to socialism?
-Only around 4000 committed members
-Lost votes to socialists as was seen as left-wing
“Punishment expeditions” in Roccastrada; who was this organised by and on who?
-Fascists, squadristi (fascist paramilitary squads) led by local Ras leaders
-On socialist groups of peasants
“Punishment expeditions” in Roccastrada; what did the Fascists do and what was their aim?
-Marched into towns on lorries, beat people, damaged properties
-Police did nothing, 3 peasants arrested
-Aimed to reduce influence of peasant leagues started by Catholics
“Punishment expeditions” in Roccastrada; what were the methods of punishment?
-Manganello; beating w/ wooden club
-Drinking of castor oil purges
-Eating toads
-Chained & naked
“Punishment expeditions” in Roccastrada; what alliances grew and what did this begin to finance?
-Growing alliance w/ industrialists/bankers/landowners began to finance building of mass base (fear of revolution)
-More radical bases saw no need for ideological coherency (students + soldiers)
“Punishment expeditions” in Roccastrada; what allowed these events to occur/be successful?
-Authorities turned a blind eye
-Businesses leant lorries & fuel
-Landowners’ fear meant they donated money
Fascist ideology 1919 vs. 1921; what was the ideology in 1919?
Broadly left-wing national movement
Fascist ideology 1919 vs. 1921; what were the policies like in 1919?
-8hr working day & guaranteed minimum wage
-Worker’s participation in national council of labour
-Common education for all
-Liberty of opinion & conscience
-Abolition & obligatory military service
-Heavy & progressive tax on capital
-Nationalisation of all arms & munitions factories (confiscation of 85% war profits)
-Confiscation of property belonging to religious organisations
-Foreign policy of peaceful competition amongst civilised countries
Fascist ideology 1919 vs. 1921; what was the switch in ideology in 1921?
Switch to right, where most of support came from
Fascist ideology 1919 vs. 1921; what was the political structure like in 1921?
Make Italy great again
Fascist ideology 1919 vs. 1921; what was the fascist policy like in 1921?
-8 hour working day w/ exceptions for agricultural & industrial requirements
-Corporations to express national solidarity & increase production
-Schools to train governing elite, provide Italy’s future soldiers w/ physical & moral training
-Citizens freedom limited in interests of nation
-Obligatory military service
-Taxes proportional to income, not confiscatory
-National firms privatised, gov spend cuts
-Complete unification, major role in Mediterranean
Fascist support; why did the small landowners support fascism?
Were hostile to socialist pressure & collectivisation programme; concern to hold on to recent land gains
Fascist support; why did the industrialists support fascism?
-Resented strong arm tactics of socialist unions
-Some joined fascist syndicates to stay in employments
Fascist support; why did the agrari support fascism?
Prepared to finance fascists or anyone else who’d help break stronghold of socialist leagues
Fascist support; why did the bourgeoisie support fascism?
Felt a collective sense of insecurity, many were ex-soldiers who felt they’d not received reward for their services
Fascist support; why did the youth support fascism?
Were keen for action & adventure, bitter about own prospects, bored w/ their routine lives
Fascist support; why did the semi-criminal classes support fascism?
Were attracted by the lawlessness & violent methods used by the fascist squads
Fascist support; why did the working classes support fascism?
Fascists retained some elements of their original social radicalism, still promised fair wages, prices & land
How many liberal governments were there from 1918-22 and how were they described?
-5
-Fragile
Liberal governments 1918 - 22; has did the government’s reactions
Liberal governments 1918-22; which government reactions to problems showed them to be very weak?
-St Germain; walked out of negotiations, had no say in what they got
-Fiume; did nothing for 15 months
-Land occupations; legalised them
-Factory occupations; did nothing but legalised reform
Liberal governments 1918-22; when was universal male suffrage introduced?
1918
Liberal governments 1918-22; what system of government was introduced and what did it lead to?
-Proportional representation
-Led to coalitions w/ little power
Liberal governments 1918-22; which political party was developed in 1919?
-PPI; Italian People’s Party/Popular Party, christian-democratic party inspired by Catholic social teaching
-Backed by Pope to oppose PSI
Liberal governments 1918-22; what were the results of the 1919 election?
-PPI got 101/508 seats (led by Sturzo, u easy coalition betw conservative & lib Catholics
-PSI got 156/508 seats
-Liberals only mustered 180/508 seats
-Fasci di combattimento got no seats (5000/270000 votes in Milan)
-Neither could form coalition as strongly opposed each other
-Libs remained in power —> unrepresentative
-Radicals had an opportunity
Liberal governments 1918-22; which PM resigned in 1920 and why + who replaced him?
-Nitti, as PPI support was waning
-Giolitti took over again, once more making uneasy coalitions
Fascist activity 1921-22; what did the fascists do after D’Annunzio was removed from Fiume?
-Slowly began to assert control; claimed his newspaper was vital to success, as was his leadership
-Stressed need to depict violence as necessary force to prevent success of socialism
Fascist activity 1921-22; when was Fascism declared a crusade?
April 1925
Fascist activity 1921-22; what did Mussolini reassure Giolitti of and what occurred despite this?
Privately reassured him that talk of Fascist revolution was not to be feared whilst attacking the state publicly
Fascist activity 1921-22; what happened during the 1921 May elections and what were the results?
-During electoral campaign, violence continue & around 100 socialists were killed
-Socialists remained largest party w/ 123 seats
-PPI had 107 seats, Fascists had 35
Fascist activity 1921-22; what did holding political positions give the Fascists?
-Image of legitimacy & respectability
-Foothold in national politics
Fascist activity 1921-22; what did Mussolini declare?
He wouldn’t support Giolitti
Mussolini success in bid for power; why was political stability a factor in Mussolini’s success?
-Realised they needed to convince industrialists, landowners & middle class of 3 things: Liberals done as effective political force, real threat of socialist revolution & only fascists being strong enough to take action
-May 1921-Oct 1922; 3 weak coalitions
-Facta was bought in to replace Bonomi but dismissed as weak & incompetent. Was bought. Back after month as no other viable option
-Fascist violence in chamber; fascist thugs roamed in debates & even beat up socialist
Mussolini success in bid for power; why were political elites a factor in Mussolini’s success?
-Police/army leaders turned a blind eye to violence & some even provided money, weapons, transport
-First half of 1921 over 200 socialists killed, 800 wounded
-Emilia/Tuscany became fascist strongholds
-Mussolini began to worry violence may alienate conservative elite & unify anti-fascists
-Mussolini knew he needed to legitimise violence to appease elites
-3 July; 12 police manage to disperse over 500
fascists
Mussolini success in bid for power; why was the Pact of Pacification and PNF a factor in Mussolini’s success?
-2nd August; signed peace treaty w/ socialists & CGL (angered Ras + surprised opposition)
-Mussolini resigned from the fascist central committee to outmanoueure the Ras, was successful & in Oct 1921 created PNF
-Nov 1921; persuaded fascist national congress to elect him as a leader: ended true w/ socialists & ordered all branches to organise action squads
-Although local Ras had considerable influence & some autonomy, Mussolini could show himself to be the undisputed leader of a political party & ensured his Milan faction would run the party
Mussolini success in bid for power; how was moderation a factor in Mussolini’s success?
-Growing control meant that he could drop left-wing elements of 1919 fascist programme, esp those that’d been hostile to the Catholic Church; hoped to increase support among Conservatives
-Pope Pius XI was opposed to PPI & supported Milan so made direct attempts to win over Catholics: declared fascism to be opposed to divorce & recognised peasants needed aid, prepared to settle roman question on terms acceptable to Pope
-Mussolini kept policy statements deliberately vague, declaring his party to be against socialism + liberalism & for a strong and ordered Italy
-End of 1921 claimed membership of 200,000
Mussolini success in bid for power; why was the fascist ‘creeping insurrection’ a factor in Mussolini’s success?
-Despite growing appeal to conservatives, local fascist leaders eg Farinacci & Balbo continued to endorse fascist violence
-To avoid split, Mussolini took dual policy throughout 1922: encouraged Ras to continue their violent activities & intimidation + made it known to conservatives that there was no intention of pushing for a violent seizure of power
-Spring 1922; concerned campaign of squadristi violence in N + central Italy, by July street fighting was common & soon towns were under fascist control such as Cremona (police offered help)
Mussolini success in bid for power; what happened during the General strike, July 31st and why?
-Attempt to force gov to take action against the fascist’s violence & their creeping insurrection which was giving them more control of towns/areas across Italy
-But Mussolini used this to show socialists were still a threat, one only fascists could stop
-Fascists immediately began to break strike, taking over public transport, postal service, & attacking strikers
Strike called off on 3rd august
Mussolini success in bid for power; who did Fascist intervention in the General strike impress and what did this result in?
-Middle classes
-Reignited relations betw fascists & liberals (potential coalition)
Extent of Fascist strength by 1915; what were the strengths of fascism?
-½m party members + ¼m blackshirts (50% ex servicemen, 10% students, 25% below voting age, teachers, mostly middle class)
-Had control of several regions
-Offered to give firm leadership, end class conflict, & gain national greatness
-Violence smashed socialism, attracting mass support
-Other opponents unable to co-operate against growing threat
Extent of Fascist strength by 1915; what were the problems of fascism?
-Weakened socialism meant less need for fascism to overcome socialist revolution
-Responsible for the disorder via use of violence
-Divided on how to achieve power – Ras wanted to seize it
-Mussolini had weak parliamentary base
March on Rome; what were the 3 political groupings prepared to take action on fascists?
-The political establishment; expected Facta to resign & new gov to form either under Giolitti/Salandra
-Luigi’ faction; started making plans for military action & ordered more troops in Rome: Luigi + ‘hero’ of Fiume D’ Annunzio made plans for mass rally of national pride & unity intended to be held on 4th Nov (‘stop’ Mussolini rally)
-Fascists; radicals were straining at the leash & Mussolini knew he had to act before the rally
March on Rome; what two fold approach did Mussolini use due to being keen on being Prime Minister?
-Launched himself into further negotiations w/ liberal factions, discussing which cabinet posts should be allocated to fascists
-Talks to fascist squads of coup d’état, was under great pressure to do so
-Fascist party congress due to start October 24th to launch bid for power
(declared he wanted 5 gov posts for fascists in new gov)
March on Rome; what occurred during the March on Rome and what did it result in?
-Balbo, De Bono, Bianchi, & De Vecchi placed at head of march
-Fascist squads organised into militia, around 30,000 fascist squads would converge onto capital
-Oct 27th: seized town halls, telephone exchanges, and railway stations
-Oct 28th: Facta found courage to act + asked king to declare martial law & ensure army acted, king refused (feared civil war, feared his cousin Duke of Acosta would take power & didn’t like lib gov’s)
-Oct 29th: Facta resigned & Giolitti asked to persuade Mussolini to take roles in cabinet, he refused so was asked to be PM
-Oct 30th: Mussolini arrives in Rome for big parade + celebration
