Establishment Of Fascist Italy 1922-28 (Complete) Flashcards
When did Mussolini become PM?
30th October 1922; Mussolini arrives in Rome to be proclaimed PM of Italy
What were the reactions of the blackshirts and Mussolini to him becoming PM?
-Blackshirts entered the city & paraded in triumph
-Mussolini’s dream of unchallenged power (personal) was still not reality
-Many blackshirts believed revolution was imminent
-Mussolini was cautious → saw limits of fascist power
What was Mussolini’s fascism government like?
-Did not have majority of MPs
-Had to construct a ‘national government’; coalition 4 fascists, democrats, 1 liberal, 1 nationalist, 2 Popolari, 2 senior army officers
-Was dependent on political compromise
What did the Conservatives think of fascism?
-A tool to destroy the left & who world then be dissolved/dispersed
-Thought that since it lacked coherent ideology & clear policies, it wouldn’t last long
What 3 advantages did Mussolini have by the end of 1922?
-Could put key ministries into fascist hands
-Could transform his squads into an organised fascist militia (MSVN)
-Could extend control by appointing fascists to positions of authority
What did Mussolini make himself alongside his role as PM?
-Minister of the interior control of the police)
-Minister of foreign affairs
How did Mussolini use the fear of revolution to his advantage?
Used it to persuade parties to grant his gov temporary emergency powers for 12 months, was now able to pass laws swiftly
Why was the Fascist Grand Council set up?
To rubber stamp Mussolini’s decisions
What were the factors that helped Mussolini gain rule by decree?
-King failed opportunity to block Mussolini & it was too late afterwards, w/out king’s backing it’d been difficult for politicians to oppose him
-Growing impatience w/ old establishment which led to desire for generational change
-Fear of violence & civil war
From 1922-28, what did Mussolini use carrot and stick policies to do?
-Increase his power over gov, parliament, fascist movement
-Reform election law to guarantee fascist majority in parliament
-Create his dictatorship, remove free elections/political opposition/power of parliament
-Did this despite socialists becoming almost non-existant
Why did the Matteotti crisis of 1924 not cause Mussolini’s down fall?
-The Aventine Succession showed weaknesses of liberals
-King made no effort to sack him; in 1925, Mussolini announced his intention to create a dictatorship & no one was there to stop him
Why did Mussolini move away from his anti Catholic & monarchy stance from 1919?
Wanted to convince that PNF was disciplined, organised & fully under his control
What was the political establishment’s aim?
Wanted to manipulate Mussolini, using fascist political strength for their own purposes
What was the King/conservative elites’ opinions on fascism and how did Mussolini use this to his advantage?
-Never imagined Italy would become a fascist dictatorship
-Mussolini knew this so he ensured he used this to his advantage, as he could use their support literally, e.g. both Giolitti & Salandra voted for Mussolini’s power of ruling by decree
him as the dynamic man to save Italy
How did Mussolini gain support of the confindustria in 1923?
Through his decision not to attack widespread tax evasion
How did Mussolini gain support of the army and anti-fascist offices?
-Army were ready to work alongside Mussolini
-When Mussolini showed he could control his squadristi, the anti-fascist offices no longer saw them as a dangerous rabble
How did Mussolini gain support from landowners?
Reassured landowners that their land was safe, as their original fear was that Mussolini would use illegal land grabbing
Why did Mussolini need to calm the fears of trade unions and how?
-Fascist TUs had plans to take control of key industries + force employers to accept radical changes in industrial relations
-The idea of ‘corporate state’ alarmed employers, so Mussolini appointed De Stefani as finance minister & reinstated bargaining rights of TUs
How did Mussolini gain support from the Catholic Church?
-Catholic church was appeased when he proposed to ban contraception & would make RE compulsory in secondary schools
-1923; Pope withdrew support from the Popolari and even told the leader, Sturzo, to leave Italy
What were the reasons for the king not stopping Mussolini’s consolidation of power?
-Mother was pro-fascist, saw -Mussolini as strong man who would save Italy
-Cousin, Duke of Acosta, was pro-fascist & supporter of Mussolini; was a threat to the king as was keen to put himself on throne so Emmanuel couldn’t be forceful against fascists
-Unsure whether army could’ve defeated fascists as many ex-soldiers had been accepted into fascist movement
-Accepted Salandra’s plan that they’d supervise in gov
What was the Rule by decree and why was it passed?
-Granted for 12 months → could create laws w/out consulting parliament
-Justification was; only a strong parliament could take stern measures necessary to restore law & order
-MPs gave massive vote of no confidence; 306:116 (incl giolitti & Salandra, only communists & socialists opposed)
What were the roles of the Grand Council of Fascism & national militia?
-Consolidating his power over his own party
-December; established the Grand Council consisting of 22 prominent party members
-Controlled its membership & agenda → he alone controlled policy
-January; reduced influence of provincial leaders by converting fascist squads into a militia paid for
by the state (MSVN)
How large was Mussolini’s private army and how were they used?
-30,000 men
-Used to continue intimidation of the fascists
What was Acerbo law and why + how was it passed?
-Had to gain majority for legitimacy & freedom of action
-Argued that Italy needed stability & that instability of constant coalitions needed to end
-Ensured if one party gained 25% of votes then it would gain 2/3 seats in chamber of deputies (PNF would be unstoppable)
-Fascist squads would smash up opposition offices + physically prevent opposition voters from voting
-Master of interior -> instruct police to allow fascists to cause havoc
-Potential to fix elections increased by fact that he’d promoted fascist sympathisers to important roles in local government
What occurred during the 1924 elections and what were the results?
-July 1923; debated, won over prominent liberals & received overwhelming majority (235:139)
-Fascist thugs roamed chamber during debate
-Many MPs welcomed destruction of left & others to change from impotent coalition govs
-1924; PNF win 374 out of 508 seats
-Although victories of fascists had been accompanied by intimidation, fraud, & some genuine support, socialism held up majorities in Milan & Turin + gained more than 2m votes
Matteotti crisis; who was Matteotti and why was he murdered?
-Parliament reopened -> opposition MPs tried to publicise illegal fascist actions at polls
-Most prominent spokesperson = socialist Matteotti; produced extensive evidence of terror
& violence during elections
-10th June 1924; days after allegations, Matteotti abducted by fascist thugs (led by Dumini) &
stabbed to death (his body discovered in Rome in August)
-Dumini was assistant to Mussolini’s press sectary, Rossi; part of Mussolini’s entourage who ran his secret squad, the Checka
-Mussolini had established the Checka, previously had ordered attacks on opponents, &
shortly before murder had expressed his loathing for Matteotti
Matteotti crisis; what were the reactions to Matteotti’s murder and how did Mussolini respond?
-Shocked not only Mussolini’s opponents but also pro-Mussolini liberals who now saw fascism had
gone too far
-He denied all knowledge of crime but chief suspect was the personal assistant to Mussolini’s press secretary
-Evidence mounted & public opposition began to build
Matteotti crisis; what was the Aventine secession and what did it result in?
-Opposition MPs walked out of parliament to set up their own breakaway formation to encourage dismissal of Mussolini by the King
-However this only made the chamber a pro-gov body and provided king excuse to do nothing
Matteotti crisis; how did Mussolini handle the hostile press campaign against him & the PNF over the Matteotti crisis?
-Mussolini’s position seemed vulnerable, he put more blackshirts on streets to deter opposition but also distanced himself from crime -> ordered arrests of fascist suspects (incl. master of the interior Federzoni, then Dumini, Rossi, Filippeli, & Marinelli)
-Checka was dissolved & militia swore allegiance to king
-He made a conservative the master of the interior, trying to create the impression that he wanted open
& fair investigation into murder
fascist leader
Matteotti crisis; what were the reactions and stances of the elites to the Matteotti crisis?
-Mussolini reassured king, who refused to dismiss him & avoided reading report that directly implicated Mussolini, he feared sacking Mussolini would strengthen revolutionary left, might lead to civil war
-Senior army officers; registered their support by donating 100,000+ surplus rifles to MSVN
-Vatican Journal Observatoire Romano backed him
-Industrialists; accepted politics was often brutal business & preferred to focus on their profits
-Senate were crucial barometer of elite opinion, endorsed on-going gov ‘pacification’ measures by 231:21 votes in late June
-Was encouraged in this belief by leading liberals & conservatives who saw affair not as an opportunity to dispose of him, but to increase their influence over weakened PM
-Giolitti & Salandra for eg, still supported Mussolini’s premiership; there still appeared to be no viable alternative to the fascist leader
Destruction of democracy; how to Mussolini move to suppress any further opposition?
-July 1924; press censorship
-August; banned opposition meetings of political parties
Destruction of democracy; how was it shown that the Matteotti crisis controversy didn’t disappear and how did Mussolini respond?
-Those liberal leaders who had previously remained supportive joined opposition in November to protest censorship
-Dec; 33 leading militia leaders, exasperated by uncertainty of affair & frustrated by lack of radicalism, gave Mussolini ultimatum
-If he didn’t end Matteotti affair immediately & move more decisively towards fascism they’d withdraw support
-10,000 blackshirts had rioted in Florence, destroying opposition party headquarters & newspaper offices
-3rd Jan 1925; speech gave himself responsibility for all fascist actions up to date & declared he’d take measures to give himself much more personal power + condemning opposition & news outlets – SPEECH CHEERED IN CHAMBER
-Fascist radicals became reassured that he’d listen to them in future
Destruction of democracy; why was Mussolini now able to make a dictatorship and how did he do this?
-Now had clear majority + no opposition from king
-All opposition in parliament = disorganised & disunited -> eventually non-fascist members
remaining resigned (Giolitti, Salandra, Orlando), joined separation parliament
-He now had fascist majority to rubber stamp all his decisions
Destruction of democracy; What were Mussolini’s actions from 1925-26 to consolidate his dictatorship?
-Jan; established committee to reform constitution
-Dec; Leggi Fascistisme passed: banned opposition parties & free TUs
-Press censorship tightened
-Had 44 ‘suspect’ organisations shut down + 100 subversives arrested
-New secret police force set up (OVRA)
-Special court established to try crimes
-Elected mayors replaced by Podestas
-Jan 1926; granted right to issue decrees carrying full force of law -> his personal rule enshrined in law
-End of 1926; parliament lost right to debate proposed law/criticise gov
Destruction of democracy; what right did the King lose in 1928?
To select PM; Grand Council of Fascism drew up list for him to select from
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; what twin track strategy did Mussolini use?
-Use violence & intimidation
-Appearing as a moderate in order to reassure the old elites & to make political deals with them
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; why was there a spurt of economic trade & growth in 1922?
De Stefani appointed as finance minister who was allowed to follow traditional liberal economic policies based on free trade & support for industry
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; what did the string of foreign policy successes in 1923-5 help with + example of one?
-Helped to build image as the man to restore national pride
-Esp Fiume 1924
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; how did the Vidoni palace pact of 1925 extended Fascist control?
Provided framework for industrial relations, bringing trade unions
under fascist control & strengthening position of employers
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; what did the leggi fascistisme (Dec 1925) do?
-Provided Mussolini w/ new title as head of gov instead of PM
-He couldn’t be removed by vote of no confidence
-Banned opposition parties & free TUs, established tighter control of press
-Elected mayors were replaced by Podestas, who were powerful local officials
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; what did The Syndical Law do (April 1927)?
Made strikes illegal & laid foundations for corporate state
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; what did Press Law of 1926 do?
Suppressed remaining independent newspapers & tightened up press
censorship
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; what did the labour charter of 1927 do?
Extended Rocco Law by forcing fascist TUs & employers to enter into collecting binding contracts & laid out that power was to stay in hands of
industrialists
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; what did Farinacci do and what happened to him?
-First half of 1925; Farinacci supervised wave of fascist violence against ‘anti-fascist’ elements eg Catholic action & unreliable civil servants
-Farinacci sacked march 1926 & PNF integrated into state bureaucracy
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; what did the party statute, Oct 1926 do and what did this allow?
Ended election of party officials & weakened the Ras, which allowed Mussolini to get rid of pro-Farinacci radicals
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; what was the measure aimed at the 10,000 Italian exiles?
Permitted authorities to cancel citizenship & confiscate property of any Italian living abroad who
‘damaged Italian interests’
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; why was repression of opponents become more systematic?
As Mussolini moved to establish a police state, helped by assassination attempts
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; how many assassination attempts were there for Mussolini and what did he do as a result?
-Nov 1925-Oct 1926; 4 attempts (in total around 13)
-After first attempt passed law on powers of the head of gov
-1926; law introduced imprisoning people w/out trial for special crimes
-Dec 1926; law in the defence of the state provided death penalty for assassination attempts of monarchy/heads of state
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; who were the OVRA and why were they introduced?
Secret police; more systematic than MSVN
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; where were political prisoners sent?
To concentration camps
Policies to consolidate power to 1927; how did Mussolini neutralise Church-state relations?
With the Lateran Agreements, 1929
