The Cognitive Approach Flashcards
General
Cognitive explanations
Based on the assumption that humans are information processors, and that humans absorb information through processing and memory encoding.
Cognitive Processes - Models of Memory
Memory Models
Provides a framework to understanding human conceptualisation over time.
Cognitive Processes - Models of Memory
Multi-Store Model
Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
Assumptions
Memory is not one unitary composition, however is three separate but interacting stores.
- Sensory register
- Short term memory (STM)
- Long term memory (LTM)
Information passes through the stores linearly.
- If information from sensory organ is attended to, transfers to STM.
- If information is rehearsed, encoded into LTM.
- LTM information can be retrieved (bidirectional connection).
Claims are related to the capacity and duration of stores.
- STM: 7+-2 things, 20-30 seconds.
- LTM: Unlimited.
Study - Models of Memory
Milner (HM case study)
Case study
Spiral
If memory is not one unitary store, then individuals who have damaged one aspect of their memory may not experience problems with other aspects.
Aim
Investigates the brain’s impact due to the removal of the hippocampus.
Initial observations
HM could remember some long-term memories.
HM could not remember the names of hospital staff post-surgery he met minutes earlier.
- Led to primary diagnosis of anterograde amnesia.
- Couldn’t form new declarative/explicit memories.
Method
HM underwent various strategies including: IQ testing, direct observation, interviews, and cognitive testing (memory recall tests and learning tasks).
Memory task - Hold a 3-digit number for as long as he could.
Results
Able to retain number up to 15 minutes if repeated continuously and not distracted by other stimuli (number repeated in head otherwise forgotten in seconds).
With rehearsal, unable to encode number into LTM.
Cognitive Processes - Models of Memory
Working Memory Model
Proposed by Baddeley and Hitch.
Extension of the Multi-Store Model.
Refers STM as Working Memory (WM).
Assumptions
STM is not one static store but a complex information processor, composed of several** dynamic subsystems**.
WM can hold limited amounts of information and used in the execution of cognitive tasks.
Contains:
* Central executive
Controls information between slave stores and largely responsible for one’s attention to information.
* Two slave systems - Phonological loop, Visuospatial sketchpad.
Holding and manipulation of auditory/visual information respectively.
* Episodic Bugger
Facilitates information between WM and LTM.
Cognitive Processes - Models of Memory
Warrington and Shallice et al
Human Case study
Aim
Investigates if visual STM decay can be differentiated from auditory STM decay.
Background Information
Patient K.F. suffered brain damage due to a motorcycle, LTM was intact but impairment in STM.
Method
Series of experiments were conducted.
STM tested using single/double/trigrams of letters with both auditory/visual presentation. Tested with varying delays in recall.
Presented with letter pair PW and asked to recall immediately, then given TY and asked to recall with 5s delay. Ranged 5-60s.
Visual - Letters presented in black ink on white paper.
Auditory - Spoken by experimenter
Results
On average KF had greater memory impairment for stimuli in verbal presentation compared to visual.
When asked to recall only 1 letter immediately, able to recall with near-perfect accuracy.
Showed greater forgetting for auditory stimuli compared to visual.
Cognitive Processes - Schema Theory
Cognitive Schema
Mental representations that organises information (knowledge, beliefs, expectations) in our minds.
Cognitive Processes - Schema Theory
Schema Theory
Creation of cognitive schemas to:
Claims
Simplify a complex world, allowing for quick judgements.
Helps in understanding/comprehension and encoding/recall for information.
Allows for generalisations to be made.
* One example of schema processing is stereotyping.
Cognitive Processes - Schema Theory
Stereotyping
Mental representation of groups of people based on group membership.
When activated, may result in the alteration of people’s perspectives on certain behaviours and characteristics.
Study - Schema Theory
Cohen
True experiment
Shows that when someone belongs to a particular group, tend to remember schema consistent information.
Method
Numerous undergraudates watched a video of a woman with her husband having dinner and then an informal birthday celebration.
Video designed to have equal numbers of waitress consistent and librarian consistent stereotypical characteristics.
* E.g. Liked to listen to pop music (waitress), Received a book from her husband (librarian).
Participants organised into conditions where they were told woman’s occupation (librarian or waitress) and asked to recall details about the woman.
Results
Subjects remembered features of woman that were schema consistent with their information told.
If participants process in unbiased way, same amount of stereotypes should be recalled.
Cognitive Processes - Thinking and Decision Making
Dual Processing Model
Proposed by Tversky and Kahneman.
Attempts to explain two different systems people use when processing information.
Each system of thinking may draw on same content, but process it differently and affect our decision making.
System 1 - Intuitive Thinking
Fast, automatic, highly adaptive, usually emotive.
Allows for efficient processing of complex world.
May be prone to errors, where assumptions do not match reality of specific situation.
Errors may have greater consequence as it creates greater feeling of certitude.
System 2 - Rational Thinking
Slower, more effortful, deliberately controlled.
Starts by thinking carefully all possible ways to interpret situation and gradually eliminates possibilities based on sensory evidence until arrive at solution.
Less prone to mistakes.
Less likely to create feelings of certitude and confidence.
Cognitive Processes - Thinking and Decision Making
Cognitive Reflection Test
Test with questions that draw out intuitive answers that are incorrect.
System 2 can override when task is too hard for system 1 to complete automatically.
Study - Thinking and Decision Making
Alter
True experiment
Aim
Investigates whether cognitive disfluency causes individuals to use rational thinking over intuitive thinking.
Hypothesis
Participants would answer more CRT items correctly when printed in difficult-to-read font.
Method
Numerous undergraduate volunteers were randomly assigned to experimental conditions and completed a CRT questionnaire individually.
* Fluent (Easy to read font).
* Disfluent (difficult to read font).
(CRT has questions that have intuitively incorrect answers, where rational thinking is needed to get correct answer).
One question: “A bat and ball costs $1.10. The bat costs one dollar more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?”
Results
On average, participants in disfluent font had a higher amount of correct answers compared to fluent font with significantly lower score.
Participants in fluent condition were twice as likely to report incorrect intuitive answers (use of heuristics).
Participants in disfluent font condition had used rational thinking to overcome intuitive judgements, answering more questions correctly.
Reliability of Cognitive Processes - Reconstructive Memory
Reconstructive Memory
Suggested memory is not an exact replica of events but a reconstruction that may be altered over time due to external inputs. Memory retrieved due to a background influence may contaminate original memory.
Memory is essentially a constructive process, created through encoding.
- Memories are not static representations, they are active constructions.
- May be altered over time when repeatedly reconstructed.
- Memories are not exact copies and susceptible to manipulation by background influence.
May result in false memories.
Reliability of Cognitive Processes - Reconstructive Memory
False Memory
Misinformation can result in false memory.
- Recalling an event that never happened and the victim believing its true.
