Paper 2 - Option 1: Human Relationships

Question 1

General

Romantic relationships

Answer 1

A relationship involving strong and frequent interdependence in many domains of life which is usually characterised by an intimate physical bond.

Question 2

Formation of Human Relationships - BIO

Biological explanations

Answer 2

Aims to explain psychological phenomena due to biological etiology where every psychological process originates from internal physiological processes.

Question 3

Formation of Human Relationships - BIO

Charles’ Darwin’s Natural Selection (Sexual Selection)

Answer 3

Human attraction originates from the desire to find the best mate that can produce and protect the healthiest offspring possible.

Question 4

Formation of Human Relationships - BIO

MHC genes

Answer 4

Major histocompatibility complex genes; An important group of genes of the immune system.

Question 5

Formation of Human Relationships - COG

Cognitive explanations

Answer 5

Based on the assumption that humans are information processors, and that humans absorb information through processing and memory encoding.

Question 6

Formation of Human Relationships - COG

Similarity-Attraction hypothesis

Answer 6

Suggests that people are more attracted to others that share similar characteristics to them (e.g. age, religion, social class, etc). May result in increased self-disclosure

Question 7

Formation of Human Relationships - COG

Self-disclosure

Answer 7

The sharing of personal things about yourself to a trusted someone, resulting in a deeper and more meaningful understanding of one another.

Communication - Results in self-validation and is a reason for the essentiality of communication in relationships

Question 8

Formation of Human Relationships - SOCIO

Sociocultural explanations

Answer 8

Based on the assumption that humans are social beings with a need to belong, and that human behaviour is governed by cultural norms.

Question 9

Formation of Human Relationships - COG

Cognitive evaluation in the S-A hypothesis

Answer 9

May mediate the S-A hypothesis. Gives insight into system 1 and 2 thinking; allows for better understanding of mental processes influencing behaviour.

Question 10

Formation of Human Relationships - SOCIO

Culture

Answer 10

Refers to the shared belief and ideals of a group, where a group is characterised by its own cultural norms.

Question 11

Formation of Human Relationships - SOCIO

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions

Answer 11

A framework for cultural norms and allows for insight into cultural influence on behaviour.

Question 12

Formation of Human Relationships - SOCIO

Individualism

Answer 12

Emphasises on self-autonomy and encourages personal values.

Question 13

Formation of Human Relationships - SOCIO

Collectivism

Answer 13

Emphasises the health of one’s extended family and the maintenance of strong kinship networks. The conformation to the expectations of extended groups.

Question 14

Study - BIO

Wedekind and Furi et al

Answer 14

Human quasi experiment.

Aim
Investigates the relationship between MHC gene signatures and attraction.

Method
Numerous female and male participants.
Males were given a clean cotton t-shirt and asked to keep in open plastic bag when not worn.
T-shirt worn for 2 nights during sleep.
Asked to abstain from spicy foods and other odour-affecting activities.
Females were asked to rate pleasantness of t-shirts.

Results
Females gave higher ratings of pleasantness to MHC-dissimilar t-shirts compared to MHC-similar t-shirts.
Odour assessment was reversed when women took contraceptives.

Question 15

Study - BIO

Buss et al 1989 Bio Analysis

Answer 15

Cross-cultural survey.

Hypothesis
Females favour mates who:
- Can invest resources in her and her children.
- Can protect her and her children.

Aim
Investigation into mate preferences and evolutionary explanations for mate selection.

Method
Over 10000 participants across 37 cultures.
Cross-cultural survey collected data on partner/spouse age preferences.
- Rated different mate characteristics on 0-3 scale (irrelevant-indispensible).
- Ranked characteristics in order of most desired.
Characteristics included - good financial prospects, chastity, ambition and industriousness, physical attractiveness.

Results
Females rated ‘good financial prospects’ and ‘ambition and industriousness’ significantly higher than males did.
Males generaly preferred spouse to be younger (females preferred older spouses).

Question 16

Study - SOCIO

Buss et al 1990 Socio Re-Analysis

Answer 16

Cross-cultural survey.

Hypothesis
Females favour mates who:
- Can invest resources in her and her children.
- Can protect her and her children.

Aim
Investigation into cultural effects on mate preferences.

Method
Over 10000 participants across 37 cultures.
Cross-cultural survey collected data on partner/spouse age preferences.
- Rated different mate characteristics on 0-3 scale (irrelevant-indispensible).
- Ranked characteristics in order of most desired.
Characteristics included - good financial prospects, chastity, ambition and industriousness, physical attractiveness.

Results
Each culture had its own distinct mate preferences.
Most evident for chastity.
Formulation of dimensions (Not Hofstede); traditional vs modern and how each culture rated ‘traditional’ mate characteristics (e.g. chastity, desire for home and children, etc).
Traditional cultures placed highest preferences for such characteristics, while modern placed lowest

Question 17

Study - COG

Montoya and Horton et al

Answer 17

True Experiment

Aim
Investigates the mediating effect of cognitive evaluation in the Similarity-Attraction Hypothesis.

Method
Numerous participants were assigned to three (in thirds) experimental conditions: similar, dissimilar, control.
Only first stage is focussed: Cover-up where participants complete an attitude assessment, obtain info about another participant and give an impression of the partner.
Attitudes rated on 7-point scale (strong disagree -> strongly agree).
For similar/dissimilar condition, instead used a bogus survey where adjusted to conditions.
Participants in control received no info.
Counterbalanced so that 50% of each condition received CEQ - Cognitive Evaluation Questionnaire - before IAQ - Interpersonal Attraction Questionnaire - (and vice versa).

Results
Participants were more attracted to similar, rather than dissimilar partners.
CEQ and IAQ are correlated.
Similarity effect is strongest when CEQ preceded IAQ.
Cognitive evaluation predicts attraction (where similarity does not).

Question 18

Study - COG

Tidwell et al

Answer 18

Correlational Study

Aim
Investigating the effects of actual and perceived similarity on initial attraction in a speed-dating setting.

Method
Numerous undergraduates attended 1 of 8 speed date sessions.
Previous to session, participants completed a questionnaire assessing characteristic traits.
Each session included 11-12 speed dates (4 minutes with other participant followed by 2 minute questionnaire about date).
Questionnaire asked to rate each date according to same traits/characteristics assessed in initial questionnaire.
Included 1-9 agreement scale for:
- General perceived similarity.
- Romantic liking.

Results
Actual similarity did not predict attraction.
Perceived similarity significantly predicted romantic liking in this context.
- Strong positive correlation between general perceived similarity and romantic liking.
- Acknowledged that actual similarity might emerge in longer context.

Question 19

Study - COG

Levine et al

Answer 19

Cross-cultural survey

Aim
Investigates the importance of romantic love in marriage across different cultures.

Method
Large sample of undergraduates drawn from many countries of varying cultures, including individualistic countries (e.g. US, UK, Australia) and collectivistic countries (e.g. Pakistan and India).
Survey consisted three Qs based on love and marriage, focussed on first question being “whether you will marry a person with all your wanted qualities even if you were not romantically interested.”

Results
People from Individualistic countries answered 5% yes, compared to 50% for collectivistic countries.

Question 20

Role of Communication, Why Relationships Change and/or End

Communication

Answer 20

Communication is the exchange of verbal/non-verbal patterns where its effectivity can explain conflict within relationships.

It is suggested by psychologists that communication is at the core of romantic relationships.

Good communication can result in more self-disclosure between a couple (more trustful, deeper, healthier relationship).

Question 21

Study - Role of Communication, Why Relationships Change and/or End

Gottman - Love lab study

Answer 21

Human observational study.
Protection from undue stress/harm, informed consent, debriefing.

Aim
Finding correlations between couples staying together or divorcing through observational data and physiological responses.

Love lab setting
A regular apartment which is equipped with cameras that record couples’ behaviour and other monitoring equipment (e.g. blood pressure and heart rate).

Method
85 couples were recruited from newspaper advertisements.

Couples arrived at the lab without interaction for 8 hours and asked to converse for 15 minutes on three topics: events of their day, something good in their relationship and a point of conflict.

Afterwards, multiple researchers/coders transcribed the data from video tapes and coded the data.

Most couples were studied again with some years intervals.

Results
By the final observation, 25% of couples had divorced.

Coded data displayed 4 prevalent negative styles of communication (4 horsemen of the apocalypse).

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Criticism - One partner makes a negative comment about the other’s personality or character.
Contempt - Looking down on someone (superiority complex).
Defensiveness - Shifting blame to someone/something else when being criticised.
Stonewalling - Withdrawing from conversations; refusing to deal with problems.

Question 22

Role of Communication, Why Relationships Change and/or End

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Answer 22

Criticism - One parter makes a negative comment about the other’s personality or character.
Contempt - Looking down on someone (superiority complex).
Defensiveness - Shifting blame to someone/something else when being criticised.
Stonewalling - Withdrawing from conversations; refusing to deal with problems.

Question 23

Study - Role of Communication, Why Relationships Change and/or End

Scott et al

Answer 23

Semi-structured interviews.

Aim
Understanding common reasons for divorce.

Method
Divorced participants previously attended the Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Programme (PREP) with their partner before marriage.

Participants were paid $50 to participate in 30min phone interviews which gathered quantitative/qualitative data (Yes/no questions to divorce reasons and elaborations).

Results
Too much conflict and arguing was listed as one of top reasons for divorce (72.2% of couples had at least one partner report communication was a major contributor to divorce).
Qualitative questions indicated that conflicts were not generally resolved calmly or effectively.
By end of marriage, respondents indicated a significant lack of effective communication.
77.8% of couples wished they known more about ex-spouse before marriage.

Counterargument to communicaiton
Suggests other reasons for divorce: lack of commitment, infidelity, getting married too young, and financial problems.