The carbon cycle EQ2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What three countries are the top energy consumers (total) globally?

A

China
USA
India
- high population - high development - industrialised -high quality of life so technology/domestic demand is high.

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2
Q

What influences a countries energy use per capita?

A

Iceland = 54,000 Kwh per capita
Norway = 23,000 Kwh per capita.
Climate - colder and less daylight hours, more enerhy for heating and lights.
Iceland is also secure in its energy supply, with 86% from their own renewable sources. This lowers the prices and there is less concern over wastage.
USA is still high 13,000 Kwh.

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3
Q

How does NYC energy consumption compare to Madagascar?

A

1 person in New York consumes more energy in one year than a person living in Madagascar will use in their whole life.

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4
Q

What are some energy issues around the world summary?

A

Canada - conflict over right to extract oil and gas from the Arctic.
Europe and North America - energy insecure, rely on imports, population is very wasteful of energy.
Russia - surplus of supply, economy reliant on fossil fuel trade, potential to use reserves as a political weapon.
Asia - rapid growing demand, use polluting sources such as coal, increasing global oil prices and decreasing population health.
Middle East- surplus supply, induces conflict.
Africa - energy poverty depends on foreign TNCs to exploit supply.

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5
Q

What is the difference between a primary and secondary energy source?

A

Primary source is consumed in its raw form, often to produce electricity.
Secondary source - energy that has been produced from another source, e.g electricity from burning coal.

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6
Q

What is the difference between a renewable and recyclable source?

A

Renewable in from a continuous flow of nature e.g solar wind and wave.
Recyclable is from a reprocessed material e.g uranium from nuclear power stations.

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7
Q

Define energy mix

A

The contribution of different energy types to a countries energy supply.

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8
Q

Give an overview of the factors affecting a countries ability to access and secure and energy supply.

A

Physical availability of resources or climate for renewable
Technology to extract resources
Geopolitical relationships and conflict.

The demand is influenced by the population size and level of economic development.

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9
Q

Global pattern of energy consumption analysis

A

Highest rates of consumption are in the northern hemisphere developed countries e.g Iceland, Norway using over 400 million Btu of energy per capita.
Saudi Arabia very high consumerism due to secure supply, worlds largest supplier of oil.
Africa has the lowest usage under 5 million Btu due to lower levels of development.

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10
Q

Iceland energy mix

A

86% domestic renewables.
85% of all houses are heated by geothermal energy.
On average energy costs 15 euro cents per Kwh.

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11
Q

Describe the UK energy mix

A

Use of coal has halved between 1980 and 2012
Majority of energy comes from gas (40%)
renewables only makes up 2% of electricity supply

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12
Q

What are the factors affecting the UK energy mix?

A

Margaret Thatcher closure of coal mines in 1980s
Environmental policy leading to a growth of nuclear, 2015 Uk committed to a 40% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2030.
1970-1980s discovery of large oil reserves in the North Sea, more secure than relying on imports but is more expensive to extract so is not viable if global oil prices fall. Estimated 4.4bn barrels remaining at the end of 2020.

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13
Q

Describe Norways energy mix

A

40% hydropower

Gas has increased from 0% to 20% between 1970 and 2010

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14
Q

What factors are affecting Norways energy mix?

A

Norways policy for change was launched in 2015 with the aim of becoming carbon neutral by 2050.
Norway is mountainous with steep valleys and lots of rainfall so HEP is the natural choice.
Discovery of North Sea Oil and Gas, development of extraction technology.

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15
Q

What are energy players?

A

Stakeholders in the enrgy industry who influence key decision making such as price, securing energy pathways and supply.
For example TNCs, governments, OPEC.

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16
Q

Define energy pathway.

A

The route taken by energy from its source to point of consumption, includes extraction transportation and delivery to consumer grids.

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17
Q

Who are OPEC?

A

established in 1960 to protect the interest of oil producing countries outside of the USA.
Sets quotas of oil extraction to help regulate global oil price via supply v demand.
Produces 45% of the worlds crude oil, owns 78% of the worlds crude oil reserves.
Membership is starting to decline as countries look for more sustainable ways to support their economy ,e.g tourism, as oil reserves run out.

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18
Q

What control do TNCs have as an energy player?

A

Control all three stages of pathway, including extraction, transportation and connecting homes to power grid.
Own infrastructure such as pipelines that are lent to other companies of governments.
Global wealth.
However, are limited by environmental laws in the country where they extract the resource.

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19
Q

Examples of TNCs role over energy pathways.

A

Shell blamed for 90% of Nigerias oil spills, shows lack of accountability but fear over international action.
Exxon/Mobil in USA exports 4.7bn barrels of oil a day.
Gazprom (private owned TNC) - 52% owned by the Russian government, controls 1/3 of the worlds gas reserves.

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20
Q

What role does OPEC have over global energy pathways?

A

Inter-governmental, combined influence with limited rivalry.
twelve member countries.
control 2/3 of the worlds oil reserves.
large influence over the amount of oil entering the global market, exerts power over prices by supply v demand.
Accused of purposefully under extracting to increase prices.

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21
Q

What are the weaknesses to OPECs control?

A

Conflict in the region creates instability.
Influence will decrease if unconventional source extraction increases or arctic extraction permission is granted.
Often rivaled by Russia - who in 2020 refused to decrease oil extraction under OPEC guidance (Russia is not a member of OPEC but are closely affiliated)

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22
Q

What control do governments have over energy pathways?

A

Influence the energy mix through environmental laws, allow TNCS foreign or state owned to manage extraction.
Responsible for securing a sustainable and plentiful energy supply.
Chooses energy suppliers.
State owned TNCs increase government power by giving them influence over the extraction and direction of oil.

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23
Q

OPEC examples of control over energy pathways.

A

2000 established their target oil price at US$22-28 per barrel
2022 OPEC have agreed to phase out 5.8bn barrel production cuts in order to tackle large increase in oil prices.

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24
Q

Governments examples of control over energy pathways.

A

UK aims to cut 1990 carbon emission by 78% by 2035
UK government gave permission for EDF (France) and China General Nuclear to develop nuclear power stations in the UK.
2015 UK governments tries to implement fast track fracking licenses means companies can test areas for fracking potential without public concent.

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25
Q

What influence do consumers have over energy pathways?

A

Mainly passive influence, occasionally successful.
Form pressure groups.
Influence energy mix through personal choices.
Mainly influence using political freedoms to vote and protest.

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26
Q

Examples of how consumers have influenced energy pathways.

A

2018 anti-fracking protests at Cuadrilla site on Preston New Road, fracking was banned in the UK in 2019.
British Gas is the most popular energy supplier in the UK (state owned)
Ambushed against shell in Nigeria caused revenue to decrease by 25%, constantly disturbed by illegal bunkering and stealing oil.

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27
Q

What role do pressure groups on energy pathways?

A

Create poltical pressure to make change.
Often consider the environment and local people as the priority.
March 2019 -Greenpeace protesters boarded West Hercules Oil Rig in Norweigan sea in protest against oil extraction in the Arctic.

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28
Q

Global patterns in coal

A

Indonesia are the biggest exporter of coal, correct climate, warmer with lots of peat bogs.
China are the second biggest importer of coal, supports their manufacturing demand. 2020 COP26 refused to sign to phase out coal by 2030.
Relative to other countries the USA imports and exports very little coal, prefer other energy resources such as tar sands from canada.

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29
Q

Global oil analysis.

A

Saudi Arabia are the largest exporter of oil, over 7 million barreks per day.
Russia exports a large quantity of their oil to Europe.
USA imports a large amount of oil.

30
Q

Global gas analysis.

A

Russia exports 143 billion cubic meters of gas to western Europe annually.
Asia has a large amount of gas flows with Malaysia being a large exporter.

31
Q

What are some common energy choke points and what are the consequences of theses chokepoints?

A

Chokepoints are areas were it is difficult to transport energy, often a narrow stretch of sea where energy supply is easily disrupted by conflict or natural disasters.
This can cause substantial energy delays, increase in oil prices, increase in transportation prices.
Examples are the Strait of Hormuz next to Oman, and the Straight of Malacca near Malaysia.

32
Q

USA and Iran - strait of hormuz chokehold.

A

17 million barrels of oil pass through the strait daily,
20% of global oil transport.
In retaliation to USA restrictions on Irans nuclear weapon development and previous conflict, Iran threatens to block the strait hence stopping USA receiving energy.
USA maintains a constant military presence and is working with UAE to develop a new transport route.

33
Q

How do natural disasters affect energy supplies?

A

Damage infrastructure and halt production
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 - workers were evacuated and 90% of oil production stopped in USA, prices rose to $70 per barrel.
In 2017 it took 11 months to restore energy pipelines to Puerto Rico, leaving 1.5 million people without electricity.

34
Q

Explain how exhaustion of supplies impacts energy pathways.

A

Decreasing supply and rising demand causes prices to increase.
Causes pressure to develop new sources of energy such as extraction in the Arctic, potential for conflict over who owns new resources.
2021 North Sea oil production fell by 7% from its peak to reach 1.6 million barrels a day.
The Internation Energy Agency believe oil product reached a peak in 2006 at 70 million barrels per day.

35
Q

How does piracy and terrorism impact distribution of energy?

A

More expensive to transport, might influence countries to import energy from elsewhere, creates insecurity in energy supply.
Somalis has had no functioning central government since 1999 allowing piracy to flourish.
Nigeria loses 400,000 barrels of oil a day to piracy, needs to pay to release ships.
Kenyan Shippers Council believe piracy adds a value of £9.8 million to all exports over a month.

36
Q

What impact does rise in price have on energy distribution?

A

Rising oil prices are related to inflation, poorest families often unable to pay energy bills, petrol etc, has as indirect effect on food prices due to transport costs.
1973 Yemen conflict and 1979 Iranian war caused oil production in the middle east to decrease, UK inflation rate of 9%.
UK 2020 concern that 6 million people will be unable to pay there energy bills due to rising fuel prices.

37
Q

How does rising demand from developing countries affect oil distribution?

A

Increase prices, more demand for supply.
Increase conflict as nations want to reclaim energy sources that they had previously exported to developed countries, or want to claim over neighbouring countries e.g South China Sea.
China makes up 13.2% of global oil consumption,
Chinese gas demand triples from 2006 to 2016.

38
Q

Explain the formation of oil and gas

A

Occured during Carboniferous period - 15 degrees warmer.
Marine organism, manly plankton, die and sink to the ocean floor.
The begin to decay.
New sediment build up on top causing the decaying material to become compressed.
Air is forced out under the pressure and the sediment undergoes lithification to form sedimentary rock.
Heat and pressure from above weight and tectonic movement continue.
Hydrocarbons form as carbon in the form of oil and gas rise as they have a lower density and become trapped in porous rock.

39
Q

Explain how coal is formed,

A

Plants on land, near or in swampy regions die.
Layers build up over dead remains.
Pressure and heat from overlying strata caused a structural change and remains became peat.
Peat eventually develops in lignite, bituminous then anthracite (hard coal).
This happens in warm, tropical regions such as Indonesia.
Takes longer than the formation of oil and gas, around 400 million years.

40
Q

What are unconventional sources of energy?

A

Untraditional energy sources.
Tar sands, fracking, deapwater drilling, oil shale mining.
Since 2020 a larger proportion of oil and gas comes from unconventional rather than conventional sources.

41
Q

What are the implication on the carbon cycle of unconventional fuel extraction?

A

More atmospheric CO2
increased CO2 from combustion, disturbance of soil layer.
Indirect affect of deforestation, destroys carbon store.

42
Q

Tar Sands Canada Costs and Benefits.

A

Produces 1.9 million barrels of oil a day, making canada the third largest oil producer.
+Contributes £1 trillion to the economy, used by government to fund infrastructure, education and health.
+in 2016 supported 2,200 companies including 400 indigenous companies.
- contributes to water insecurity, 2018 withdrew 156 million m3 of water from the Lower Abthabasa River
- local communities have higher rates of cancer and auto-immune disease.

43
Q

Environmental impacts of Tar Sands in Canada.

A

Produces 3 to 4 time more greenhouse gases than conventional oil
toxic falling ponds from waste water cover 170 square km, killed 1600 bird in 2010 when oil particles damaged wings so unable to fly away.
140km at risk of deforestation.

44
Q

USA support for Canada Tar Sands.

A

+ provides 5% of USA’s gasoline

- NDRC was the first US group to protest against extraction on environmental grounds.

45
Q

Pros and Cons of USA Shale Oil

A

In 2013 the USA had 38 billion barrels of potential shale oil.
Expected to create 1.7 million jobs by 2020
Contributes to 30% of USA crude oil production
Argentina expected to save 10 billion annually by extracting their own shale oil rather than importing oil.
- single barrels requires 2 tonnes of coal and 15 barrels of water.
- North Dakota region, rapid population growth, infrastructure was unable to cope, chronic housing shortage.

46
Q

Environmental impacts of Shale Oil extraction.

A

Double to carbon emissions of conventional crude.
A large volume of waste stored in slag heaps, risk of ingintion and chemical leak years after stopped production. However, Five Sister slag heap in Scotland are now a tourist site.

47
Q

Pros and Cons of fracking (Shale Gas)

A

+Poland has a large enough shale gas supply to last 300 years at current usage.
+ In 2010 600,000 US workers were employed in fracking, contributes $118 billion to the economy directly and indirectly.
- fracking recquires 4 million gallons of water per well.
- UK supply will only last nine years, but has detered investment in renewables.
+ February 2022 Conservative government wrote an open letter to Boris Johnson claiming fracking could bring UK energy security.

48
Q

Environmental impacts of fracking.

A

+ land usage is smaller than open cast mining so less deforestation
- can cause tremors up to 3.4 magnitude, Preston in 2019 a 2.1 tremor was recorded, influence decision to temporarily ban fracking.
- 20 to 30% of chemicals used during fracking remain underground potential to contaminate water, however water aquifers are generally higher up than fracking sites.
+ 50% less greenhouse gases than coal.

49
Q

Deepwater Oil Pros and cons.

A

estimated 20bn barrels of deepwater oil along the coast of Brazil, could hugely aid economic development.
Oil and gas contributes to 10% of Brazils economy.
Petrobras produces 500,000 barrels of oil a day, state owned, offers a secure supply.
A further 8bn have been invested by Brazils government into oil extraction.

50
Q

2010 Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill

A

Largest oil spill in US history.
Oil rig exploded killing 11 people and releasing 4 million barrels of oil into the ocean.
Cost BP more than $62bn to recover from damages.
900 bottle-nose dolphins were found dead or stranded.

51
Q

Environmental impacts of deep-water oil drilling

A

declining fish stock
Sonic distrubances affect marine life communication, e,g dolphins radar.
Reduced as EPA prohibits companies from releasing chemical wast into the sea.

52
Q

Changing uk energy consumption

A

Individual energy consumption has decreased by 12% and industry by 60%.
More efficient use and production of energy.
Major shift away from energy intensive industries such as ship building etc,

53
Q

How does nuclear power work?

A

Energy derived from hear from nuclear fission in a nuclear reactor core.

54
Q

What are the benefits of nuclear power?

A

France has increased energy security by investing in nuclear power after 1970s oil crisis,
Has 56 nuclear reactors, contribute to 70% of Frances electricity comes from nuclear.
Earns 3bn annually from exporting nuclear energy to europe.

55
Q

Nuclear power costs.

A

Dangerous when poorly managed. Chernobyl 50 deaths, cost £70bn to clean up so far, clean up isn’t expected to finish till 2065.
Fukashima in Japan 2011, France and Germany stopped their nuclear programmes in fear of similar disasters.
Mining uranium to feed a nuclear power plant releases 2000 to 50000 tonnes of CO2 a year.

56
Q

How does wind energy work?

A

Wind turbines use blades to collect the winds kinetic energy, wind flows over the blades creating lift, this causes the blades to turn which drives a generator creating electricity.

57
Q

What are the advantages of wind?

A

is growing faster than any other renewable technology.
China 7% of domestic power consumption comes from wind, in 2020 had a wind power generation of 281GW.
Over the past ten years, wind capacity has grown by 15% per year to become the largest renewable technology in the US.
Already cheaper than electricty from 60% of coal stations

58
Q

What are the costs of wind energy?

A

2-3MW wind turbine costs $2-4 million dollars to build, not a feasible investment in LICs,
Required a minimum wind speed of 7m/s for a basic wind turbine.
On average only generate electricity for 70-85% of the time.

59
Q

How does solar energy work?

A

Uses photovoltaic cells, sunlight energy is captured and converted from DC to AC usable energy current.

60
Q

What are the advantages of solar energy?

A

PV production is doubling every two years.
Spain has over 100 large PV sites, contributing to 5.2% of Spain’s electricity.
Walt Disney world has a solar panel station with 50,000 pannels providing 40% of the parks electricity.
In 2017 announced that over 800,000 social housing properties would be fitted with solar panles over the next five years in England and wales.

61
Q

Solar energy costs.

A

Very few CO2 emissions ( more than other renewables)
expensive, more than double the price in US cents per kilowatt per hour than coal.
Single pannels cost £300-£500.
Climate dependent, in UK only expect to get 4 hours of full power outage per day

62
Q

What is biofuel?

A

An energy source from living agricultural material often maize crop.
Often mixed with petrol and diesel before it is used in engines.
Ethanol makes up 90% of all biofuel production.

63
Q

Biofuel positives

A

In the USA the amount of maize crop turned into ethanol increased from 15m tonnes in 2000 to 85m tonnes in 2007.
90% of car engines are already suited to biofuel mixed with petrol, so little resistance to change.
Brazil biofuel expansion has lead it to be the largest exporter of sugar cane..

64
Q

Biofuel negatives

A

9% of global agriculture is used for biofuel production.
contributing to maize price to rise by 50% in the last decade.
Since 2003 the area planted with sugar cane in Brazil is expected to double, contributing to mass deforestation.
Food v fuel debate, in 1991 4 million people in the sahel were reliant on food air but biofuel exports continued.

65
Q

Carbon capture and storage.

A

Accepts that countries will continue to use coal, aims to reduce CO2 emissions releases the the atmosphere by capturing and burying carbon emissions.
Century plant in USA catures over 8 million tonnes of carbon a year, was opened in 201o but then closed in 2016.

66
Q

Cons of carbon capture.

A

Very expensive technology and highly experimental with concerns that the carbon will eventually leak back into the air or cause geological damage underground where it is stored.
In 2020 UK government invested £4.5bn in carbon capture.

67
Q

Hydrogen fuel cells potential.

A

Potential to be used in transport and electricity, heat generation in buildings.
Only side product is water but this is still a greenhouse gas and accounts for 60% of the greenhouse gas warming effect.
NASA have used hydrogen fuel cells for rockets, shuttles and takeoff and energy since 1970s.
In 2021 Toyota sold 2,600 hydrogen fuel cell cars.

68
Q

what are the limitations of hydrogen fuel cells?

A

Hydrogen gas is flammable, so safety concerns for transport uses.
The source of hydrogen is questionable, one source of hydrogen is coal and natural gas.

69
Q

Electric vehicles positives

A

No carbon emissions
Technology is growing exponentially, future predictions to become more affordable and efficient.
UK 2030 government ban on the sale of new diesel and petrol cars

70
Q

Electric vehicles negatives.

A

More expensive than normal cars, deters buyers, Nissan leaf costing almost £30,000.
Concerns over how sustainable the source of electricity is, Iceland Geothermal would work but Australia coal would not.
UK has 13,000 charging point for 155,000 cars, not infrastructure sustainable.