the beginning of change xx-renaisance Flashcards
- what was the renaissance?
was a cultural movement that began in Florence, Italy, in the late 1400s.
- what did the renaissance cause a ‘rebirth’ of?
learning and a belief that being
educated in art, music, science and literature could make life better for everyone.
- who was vesalius?
• as Professor of Surgery at the University of Padua in Italy, he began to question Galen’s opinions
- what book did vesalius write?
The Fabric of
the Human Body (1543)
- what was vesalius book about?
• was a beautifully illustrated, very accurate textbook based on dissections and observations of the human body
• Galen’s mistakes because he dissected animals
• provided proof of Galen’s mistakes, for example the
breastbone in a human being has three parts, not seven as in an ape
- what did vesalius do?
-he dissected human bodies
-he said medical students should learn from dissections
- what was the reaction to vesalius/ his work?
• he was criticised for saying Galen was wrong
- what was vesaliuss contribution to medical progress in england?
• in 1545 Thomas Geminus copied Vesalius’ illustrations and put them in a manual for barber-surgeons, called Compendiosa
• Compendiosa was very popular in England,
- what effect did vesalius work have?
• Although Vesalius work did not lead to any medical cures, it was the basis for better treatments in the future.
• Vesalius showed others how to do proper dissections, and famous sixteenth century anatomists followed his approach, e.g. Fabricius
- what were gunshots wounds thought to be before pares discoveries?
poisonous
- how was gunshot wounds treated?
burned out using boiling oil
- what were pares discoveries regarding gunshot wounds?
1537 - Paré ran out of hot oil so he improvised and just used the cream of rose oil, egg white and turpentine was applied
- how did pares discovery change how gunshot wounds were treated?
Paré’s patients’ wounds healed well
He wrote a book about treating wounds
- how were wounds treated that were bleeding?
Wounds were cauterised to stop bleeding
- what were pares discovery’s regarding wounds being cauterised to stop bleeding?
Paré used Galen’s method of tying blood vessels with ligatures or thread
- how did pares discovery change how stopping bleeding was treated?
The ligature was less painful, but was slower and could introduce infection; it also took longer to use in battlefield surgery
- what was pares contribution to medical progress in england?
Paré translated the work of Andreas Vesalius and used Vesalius’s work in his famous Works on Surgery.
This was widely read by English surgeons
Queen Elizabeth I’s surgeon William Clowes (made Paré’s work well known.
- who made pares work well know?
Queen Elizabeth I’s surgeon William Clowes
- who was william harvey?
was an English doctor who challenged Galen by saying the
biood circulated round the body
- how did galen say about blood?
Galen said new blood was
constantly made in the liver and burned as a fuel in the body
- what was harvey’s contribution to medical progress?
• He observed the slow-beating hearts of cold-blooded animals to understand how the muscles worked
• He read widely what the Italian anatomists at Padua discovered, and built upon their work.
• He dissected and studied human hearts.
• He experimented pumping liquid the wrong way through valves in the veins, proving that blood could only go round one way
- what didn’t harvey know?
- why the blood circulated
- why there was different
coloured blood in the arteries and veins
- what was the reaction to harvey’s discovery?
- Harvey’s critics said he was mad. Some doctors rejected his theory because he was contradicting
Galen, or did not believe his caiculations. - Despite all the criticism, Harvey’s theory was accepted by
many doctors.
- what the significance of harvey’s discovery?
Harvey’s discovery was not immediately useful. Transfusions did not happen until 1901, when blood groups were discovered
- who’s nicholas culpeper?
-Wrote The complete herbal (1653)
-Used plants and astrology in his treatments
-Highty critical of bloodletting and purging
- who’s thomas sydenham?
English doctor who stressed the careful observation of symptoms and was critical of quack medicine
- what were treatments in the seventeenth and eighteenth century?
-bloodletting
-herbal remedies, for example new natural medicines such as the bark of the Cinchona tree from South America which contained quinine for malaria
-opium from Turkey used as an anaesthetic
-the discovery by the military surgeon, John Woodal in 1617, of lemons and limes to treat scurvy
- who were quacks?
showy, travelling salesmen who sold all sorts of medicines and ‘cure-alls’.
- when was the great plague?
1665
- what was the great plague?
he plague returned in an epidemic that killed about 100,000 people in London (around a
quarter of the city’s population) and thousands of people in the rest of the country.
- what were remedies/ treatments against the great plague?
• bleeding with leeches
• smoking to keep away the ‘poisoned’ air
• sniffing a sponge soaked in vinegar
• using animals such as frogs, pigeons,
snakes and scorpions to draw out the
poison’
- when dealing with the great plague what had people learned since the black death?
• People recognised the likely connection between dirt and the disease; most deaths occurred in the poorest, dirtiest areas.
• There was a more organised approach this time. Mayors and councillors issued orders to try to halt the spread of the disease.
• There was more effective quarantine (locking up) of victims in their houses, guarded by watchmen.
• Orders were issued for streets to be swept and animals were not allowed in the streets.
• Gatherings of crowds for plays or games were banned.
- who paid for modern hospitals?
by the rich, such as Guy’s Hospital in London (1724), or by ‘private subscription’, where local people clubbed together to pay.
- when were 5 new general hospital built in london?
1720-1750
- what did hospital have in them?
medical schools to train doctors
- what was treatment mainly based on?
based on the four humours approach of bleeding and purging.
- how did attitudes towards treating patients change?
Christians thought it better to help the sick
- how did attitudes towards sinning being the reason for illness change?
Fewer people thought illness was a punishment for sin. Instead they thought that illness could be dealt with by a more evidence-based, scientific approach.
- what was added to hospital towards the end of the eighteenth century?
pharmacies, giving the poor free medicines,
- what were some specialist hospitals in london at the time?
London’s Lock Hospital for venereal disease (1746) and a maternity
hospital, the British Hospital for Mothers and Babies (1749).
- who was john hunter?
a pioneer of scientific surgery.
- what were hunters books?
• Based on his observations, dissection skill, and experimentation, as well as his experience in the army. Example are The Natural History of the Teeth (1771), On Venereal Disease (1786), and Blood inflammation and gunshot wounds (1794)
- what did hunter teach?
• Taught hundreds of other surgeons (such as Edward Jenner) in his scientific approach
• Inspired many young surgeons to become great medical teachers and professors, some of whom founded famous teaching hospitals
- what was hunters collection?
• Collected and studied 3000 anatomical specimens such as stuffed animals, dried plants, fossils, diseased organs, and embryos
- what were hunters methods?
• Demanded careful observation in
surgery; experimented on himself in 1767, with gonorrhoea germs
• Tried radical surgery; in 1785 he saved a man’s leg with a throbbing lump (aneurysm) on his knee joint, instead of performing the usual amputation
- what was one of the most feared diseases in the eighteenth century?
smallpox
- what was used to prevent smallpox?
inoculation, but this was controversial and i didn’t always work
- what’s inoculation?
• It involved giving a healthy person a mild dose of the disease.
• It became common from the 1740s and many doctors became rich from the procedure.
- what were the problems with inoculation?
• There was a risk that the smallpox dose was not mild, and could kill.
• Inoculated people could still pass on smallpox to others.
• Poor people could not afford to be inoculated.
- how did jenner discover vaccination?
• edward jenner giving cowpox
to an eight-year-old boy as an experiment. If the cowpox was to work, then the child would not react to the follow-up smallpox inoculation;
• Six weeks later, he gave the boy smallpox inoculation: no disease followed.
• Jenner repeated the experiment over several weeks with 16 different patients. None of them reacted to smallpox inoculation. Jenner concluded correctly that cowpox
protected humans from smallpox.
- why did jenner and the vaccination have opposition?
Jenner published his findings in 1798 but …
• he could not explain how vaccination worked
• many doctors were profiting from smalpox so didn’t support jenners vaccination
• Jenner was not a fashionable city doctor, so there was snobbery against him.
- why was the vaccination accepted?
• members of the royal family were vaccinated, which influenced opinion
• Parliament acknowledged Jenner’s research with a £ 10,000 grant in 1802
• in 1853 the British government made smallpox vaccination compulsory
