1
Q
Impact of death of Caesar
A
- Assassinated March 44 BC→ Brutus & Cassius (supporters of republic) → Granted amnesty
- Will: Nominated Octavian as heir and adopted son;
- “At the end of the will, too, he adopted Gaius Octavius into his family and gave him his name.” Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars
- O immediately left Macedonia→ headed to Rome to claim inheritance, avenge murder
- Death left power vacuum→ briefly filled by JC’s ‘deputy’ Marc Antony
- Politics; Republicans (Cicero) vs JC’s men (Marc Antony) In middle; moderates want no war
2
Q
Early career of Octavian
A
- Assassins had destroyed his idol & future→ had to seek vengeance as JC’s son
- MA dealt with him brusquely→ MA refused to hand over JC’s money (had spent most of it)
“Antonius had been irritated at Caesar’s favouritism towards a young relative” JONES
- O had to honour will→ sold own property to pay what JC promised citizens, staged games (gained popularity)
“At the age of 19, on my own initiative and at my own expense, I raised an army by means of which I liberated the Republic.” RES GESTES
- Comet appeared→ superstitious, Romans saw connection to JC
“Octavian added an image of the comet to his father’s statues…he gained considerable popularity” ECK - Even with growing support→ didn’t underestimate power of Cicero & MA
- 44 BC→ Cicero attacked MA politically. Consul expired→ MA moved north to take control of province, attacked when governor refused to leave
- Cicero sent army to assist governor, led by 2 new consuls→ Csaid shared command with O
- Republicans needed O→ had large forces→ O granted propratorian imperium (went against tradition) Under curusus honourum, O shouldn’’t have that power for 20 years
- O’s army marches north→ defeats MA, both consuls killed, O absorbed armies into his own
- O left in sole command→ C demanded O hand over legions, declared MA public enemy, Brutus and Cassius given command of east. (C underestimates O→)
- O marches legions on Rome, takes treasury to pay soldiers
- Cancelled decree outlawing MA
- Elected himself & cousin consul for 43 BC
- B & C outlawed (amnesty overturned)
- O meets with JC’s former leading commanders: MA and Lepidus
“Cicero’s policy failed…Republic again was at mercy of men who commanded loyalty of the legions.” SCULLARD
3
Q
Second Triumvirate
Who had what land
A
MA –> Gallia Comata (Transalpine Gaul) and Gallia Cisalpina (Cisalpine Gaul)
Oct –> Africa, Sicily, Sardinia
Lep –> Gallia Narbonensis (Narbonese Gaul) and Spain
Division left MA in strongest position
4
Q
Second Triumvirate
A
- 43 BC→ O sanctioned alliance→ no civil war
- Power came from offices, titles and collective strength of 33 legions
- Treated western part of Roman empire as personal property (divided into 3 parts)
- O: Had no use for Sicily and Sardinia, Africa hard to reach (seas controlled by pirate Sextus Pompeius)
- Aim of 2nd Triumvirate→ Reconstruct state.
- Triumvirs instead used powers to rid themselves of political opponents, & avenge JC murder
- Proscription; Opponents declared outlaws, anyone could kill for reward (assets seized when dead→ used to pay legions)
- Over 20,000 men (300 senators) marked for proscription.
- Impact; “Proscriptions…brought about a reorientation of loyalties in political bodies”
- Triumvirs commanded 45 legions
5
Q
Civil war: Beginning
A
42 BC; MA & O confront Brutus & Cassius forces in Greece (Left Lepidus in charge of Italy)
Defeated in 2 engagements near Philippi (B & C commit suicide) → now 60 legions
After Philippi→ MA controlled east, O; Italy & west
MA in east→ relationship with Cleopatra→ O used for propaganda war
Lepidus (suspected conspiring Sextus Pompeius) relegated to minor triumvir→ only Africa
40 BC→ MA return to Italy→ misunderstandings nearly cause civil war, but reach agreement
6
Q
Civil war: Treaty of Brundisium (1st treaty)
A
- Lepidus; allowed retain Africa
- MA remain control of east
- O added provinces Transalpine & Narbonese Gaul
- Triumvirs nominated consuls several years ahead→ secure positions
- MA marry Octavia (O’s sister)
7
Q
Civil war: Sextus Pompeius Treaty of Tarentum (2nd treaty)
A
- Pirate→ forces hinder corn supplies to Italy + gave refuge to O’s enemies
Treaty of Tarentum (37 BC)
- O needed MA support to defeat Sextus Pompeius, MA needed troops for campaign
- MA to provide 120 ships, O to provide 20,000 legionaries
- MA gave ships, O later only sent 2,000
- 36 BC→ O, Agrippa’s fleet, Lepidus’ forces from Africa attack SP
- SP defeated→ flees east, but captured and executed on MA orders
- Now O had more soldiers than needed→ solution to settle veterans outside Italy
- Given honour of triumph for defeat of SP
- O announces end of civil wars; senate grants him immunity usually given to tribune of people
- Lepidus eliminated from triumvirate→ on charge he tried to undermine O’s legions
- “With Lepidus’ resignation the triumvirate had effectively ceased to exist.” ECK
8
Q
Civil war: Defeat of SP
A
- Over next years→ O strengthened Rome & military, economically and socially
- Managed to secure north east frontier and clear Adriatic sea of pirates
- Secured peace in Italy→ settle veterans, provide stability and prosperity
- People granted benefits of cheap corn, clean water, new building programs
- O; great respecter of Roman tradition→ sought to expel alien, non-Roman practices & reinforce traditional Roman beliefs
9
Q
Consequences and significance of the Battle of Actium: Battle Overview
A
- 14 years: O & MA viewed for power and influence in Rome→ only one could triumph
- “Actium could come as no surprise”- Andrew Wallace Hadrill
- After battle of Philippi→ MA toured east to gain payments; needed money to wage war on Parthians; expected to gain funds in Egypt→ met with Cleo
- MA unsuccessful in defeating Parthians→ missed his chance to ‘outdo’ O
- Failure weakened MA politically and financially→ spends more time with Cleo→ O uses this for propaganda
- MA divorces Octavia, (O saw as insult to family & Rome) & acknowledged Caesar as son of Caesar→ implies O took power illegally
- Political upheaval→ O launches attacks on MA’s unRoman behaviour, elected as consul for 31→ gained formal declaration of war against Cleo
- End of 32→ MA moved to Greece (based himself in bay of Actium)
- Early 31→ O advances to Greece (based himself overlooking Actium)
- Romans saw battle as; “A symbol of salvation, of the rescue of Rome from destruction” AWH
- MA forces failed to lure O into battle→ gave up land operations as position worsened
- Short supplies, troops deserted, disease spread
- Cleo’s presence→ further disillusioned MA’s forces
- Agrippa; penned in MA naval forces (had more ships) wanted them out in open water
- MA & Cleo; fled to Egypt→ remaining ships surrendered or destroyed
- O pursues in Egypt→ MA & Cleo commit suicide & Caesarion killed (seen as possible rival)
10
Q
Consequences and significance of BOA
A
- Actium not seen as greatest battle→ but following battle Egypt became part of Roman empire
- Major grain source & gave O access to wealth
- “Augustus gave the Roman world a new order.” AWH
O settles affairs in East→ reestablished old provinces, no campaign against Parthia - Marked end of civil wars “The century of civil wars…was ended” SCULLARD
- No rivals→ people glad for peace and stability; voted O honours & tributes, e.g. games staged in his honour
- Great propaganda victory→ Stated that entire fabric of civilisation was at stake
- O said dangers didn’t die; he would safeguard against constant battle to uphold Rome from dangers
- After battle; O’s coins declared him champion of liberty of Roman people→ ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE; Coin describing O as ‘son of god’ printed with Liberator of people on it
- “The myth tells us, the threat was not laid to rest with victory. It was permanent: Rome…were ever in danger, for ever in need of a saviour.” AWH
11
Q
Development of the principate: settlements of 27 and 23 BC
A
- After Actium→ O’s power unquestioned, empire at peace
- New problem; what position would O take in the new Rome
- Possibilities: could retire from public life, could follow the lead of the Senate, could follow JC and take on dictatorship, perhaps restore monarchy
Factors to be considered: - O was ambitious→ wouldn’t walk away from power, had intention of maintaining personal power
- Knew power of legions, wanted to ensure they couldn’t be used for benefit of future political leaders
- Very conservative man; bound by duty, patriotism→ respected tradition. Wanted to maintain facade of republican form of govt→ system gradually created after - 27 BC attempted to maintain republic but also guaranteed him supreme personal power
- Principate; In theory→ sharing of power between Princeps and the Senate
- Reality: Power of Princeps grew to that of monarch at expense of Senate→ happened in evolutionary
- Principate grew in power as result of political agreements of settlements made between A and senate
- T. Mommsen→ Govt was a sharing of power between Emperor and Senate→ called it dyarchy
- Bury→ “The dyarchy is a transparent fiction”
- Succession; First wanted nephew Marcus, then wanted Agrippa, then his grandsons (were adopted as his own sons) → then Tiberius was final choice
- Choosing a successor; Had begun to resemble a monarchy
12
Q
Settlement of 27 BC
A
- Res Gestae→ acknowledged he had supreme powers: “Having attained supreme power by universal consent.” but then says: “I transferred the state from my own power to the control of the Roman senate and people.”
- Was never going to walk away from power; but wanted Senate to insist he continue; they did
- Jan 27 BC→ given Proconsular Imperium for 10 years over provinces he was governing→ made him commander in chief of Rome’s legions
- Control of military→ Senate would never be able to act independently; rivals to O would have no power base
- Egypt confirmed as O’s personal imperium→ gave access to enormous wealth; use for veterans and clientele, ensured corn supplies to Rome and Italy
- Nominated for consul for each year until 23 BC→ able to exercise imperium not just in own provinces, but in city of Rome too
- Other provinces of empire→ to be run by Senate, but he could ‘guide’ their administration
- Given title of Augustus; revered one→ emphasised his high position in state
- Wanted to convince people he was just the first citizen; became princeps→ govt known as principate
13
Q
Settlement of 23 BC
A
- 27 BC→ left Rome for western provinces, came back in 24 BC→ settlement hadn’t been successful→ Senate disquiet (anti-Augustus conspiracy discovered in 23)
- Was unhealthy→settlement of 23 came out of concerns for senate unrest and succession
- Gave up power of consul (having ½ ultimate honour position→ resented by political elite
- Proconsular imperium now deemed superior to governor of any other province→ granted maius imperium
- Granted Tribunician Authority (Tribunician potestas) for life→ wide ranging powers
- Power to legislate in assemblies, could summon Senate
Could veto laws, propose new laws - Protect individuals against the actions of magistrates
- Later granted right to sit between Consuls and granted consular imperium in Rome (didn’t need to be consul for life)
- Never took dictator powers→ censorial powers granted to him in 29, 19 and 12 BC
“After that time I excelled all in authority, but I possessed no more power than the others who were my colleagues in each magistry.” RES GESTAE
14
Q
Titles, honours and images of the princeps
A
- A never flaunted power; often turned down offices offered by Senate→ however did hold political, military and religious positions
- Power was never in question→ emphasised titles and honours bestowed on him though
“…As attested by the inscription thereon, was given to me by the senate and the people of Rome on account of my courage, clemency, justice and piety.” RES GESTAE
5 titles Augustus used;
Pontifex maximus
Consul
Imperator
Tribunicia potestas
Pater Patriae (Father of the country) - A knew importance of image→ majority of population was illiterate, only small minority would ever see A→ presentation on statues,coins, monuments was important→ image provided focus for loyalty
“To break an oath by Augustus,to deface his image…was to show disrespect to his greatness.” AWH
15
Q
Titles, honours and images of the princeps: COINS
A
- Numismatics→ Shows how A wanted to appear to people
- A obtained right to making coins out of precious metals
- Coin had propaganda value→ image of A and messages connected with image
- 27 BC: Gold coin “AEGYPT CAPTA” with crocodile→ A presented as conqueror of Egypt (and evil queen)
- After Actium→ O coins declared him champion of liberty of Roman people (LIBERTATIS PR VINDEX)
- Coins depicting him,titles and accomplishments→ used daily, strong propaganda→ reinforces to people how great he was
16
Q
Titles, honours and images of the princeps: STATUE OF AUGUSTUS OF PRIMA PORTA
A
- Statue found in villa of his wife Livia
- Shows A as young, strong, victorious general addressing troops
- Flawless features→ seen as personification of power and authority
- Central scene on cuirass→ depicts return of standards lost to Parthians following Crassus’ defeat in 53 BC→ restoration of Roman honour had great propaganda value
- Veiled references to A’s divinity→ barefoot (suggest hero or divine nature)
- Small cupid (son of Venus) at right foot rides dolphin (Venus’s patron animal)–> Julian family claimed to be descended from goddess Venus
17
Q
Titles, honours and images of the princeps: THE ARA PACIS
A
- Ara Pacis (Altar of peace)
- Commissioned by Senate in 13 BC→ designed to welcome A back from Spain
- Meant to symbolise peace and prosperity achieved thanks to “Augustan peace”
- Altar surrounded by square wall broken by doorways leading to altar, around the wall is frieze
- One level→ celebrates A’s return→ one moment in time
- On another level→ Timeless quality
- 2 doorway ends viewed as male and female. Romulus and Aeneas→ meant to personify male values that made Rome great; piety and virtue
- “The female pair represent the consequences of these qualities; the victory of Rome and the fruitful prosperity of the earth under Rome’s rule.” AWH
- A depicted as priest, women and children of household follow→ family is model of virtue, morality and fertility (image complements strong morals A took in religious and moral reforms)
- Has relief scenes depicting Vestal Virgins, priests and sacrificial animal
18
Q
Roles of imperial women: Livia, Julia
A
- Women useful to Roman men→ provided means of establishing political alliances
- Politics that mattered in creation or destruction of a marriage
“Octavian broke his engagement to Servilia when he became engaged to Marc Antony’s stepdaughter Clodia. But he broke this engagement as well in order to marry Scribonia…” POMEROY - Augustan era→ marriage not just political alliances→ key factor in determining succession to Augustus’ power
19
Q
OCTAVIA (69-11 BC)
A
- Augustus’ older sister
- First husband died in 40 BC→ Augustus pressured her to marry MA in 39 BC→ Political alliance
- Octavia independent→ refused to divorce Antony despite brother’s urgings until she had to (32 BC)
- After MA died→ she looked after their children, his children with Cleopatra,and first wife
- Octavia propaganda→ remained faithful,dutiful wife looking after kids, while MA with Cleopatra
- Dutifulness weakened image of MA with Roman people
In 20’s BC → son Marcellus promoted→ married Augustus’ daughter Julia (25 BC) - Octavia grief stricken when son died in 22 BC
“Octavia was so shattered by her loss that she withdrew from court life, living in isolation till her death a decade later” AWH
20
Q
JULIA (1)
39 BC-AD 14
A
- Augustus’ daughter→ very tough on
- “He appears to have been too strict on his daughter Julia…he also married her without any regard to her feelings…to politically useful person’s” JONES
- 37 BC→ betrothed to MA’s son
- 25 BC → intervened to end arrangement→ married 1st cousin Marcellus(died in 23 BC→ widow at 16)
- 21 BC→ married Augustus’ closest friend Agrippa (he was 42)–> had 5 children
- 12BC Agrippa died → 11 BC Augustus forced Tiberius to marry her (not happy relationship)
- Tiberius not happy he had to divorce woman he loved, and Augustus was grooming grandsons for succession in preference to Tiberius despite his service to Rome
- Julia threw herself into life of promiscuous abandon→ took many lovers
- Augustus angry at her indiscretions→ made mockery of moral legislation he promoted→ sent her divorce papers in Tiberius’ name and exiled her to island of Pandateria
- Her daughter Julia (2) suffered same fate for same reasons
- Julia (1) died in AD 14 of starvation→ after Tiberius’ accession to power
- “He let her waste away to death, exiled and disgraced, by slow starvation. He calculated that she had been banished for so long that her death would pass unnoticed.” TACITUS
21
Q
LIVIA
58 BC- AD 42
A
- Augustus’ wife for 52 years (38 BC-AD 14)
- Conformed to traditional role of wife and mother.
- “Her greatest service to the Romans lay in her devotion to Octavian and in the civilising influence she brought to bear on him.” PAYNE
- Married Tiberius in 43 BC and had child in 42 BC
38BC→ Tiberius persuaded to divorce her→ she married Octavian but already pregnant with 2nd child - Political move→ marrying into aristocratic family brought support for Augustus, but also in love with her
- AD 14→ Augustus died, Tiberius emperor, Livia adopted into Augustus’ lineage as Julia Augusta
- Augustus promoted her→ many public statues, public buildings dedicated to her, she was granted sacrosanctity and right to sit between vestal virgins during public performances
- “All of her images and actions were closely connected with marriage, family and traditional Roman morality” MCMANUS
