Cities of Vesuvius: Syllabus Flashcards
1
Q
Geographical Context
The physical environment: The geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum: GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
A
- Campania- fertile, volcanic plain.
- Vesuvius dominates plain. P and H are from volcanic spurts and mounds
- Region mineral rich in volcanic soils- supports vines, olives, fruit and sheep
- Pompeii was 500m from the coast. Stabiae on one side and Herc on the other
- Herculaneum was on bay- 16km North East of Pompeii
“ Then indeed there is that wonderful and life-sustaining and healthy atmosphere that lasts all the year through.” PLINY THE ELDER- NATURAL HISTORY
2
Q
Geographical Context
The physical environment: The geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum: NATURAL FEATURES
A
POMPEII
- Situated on raised area (prehistoric lava flow)
- Natural bay- site for port
- Sarno river→ water and shiping
- Fertile land → farming estates
- Hot springs nearby
HERCULANEUM
- Volcanic plateau→ South west of Mt V
- 2 streams→ East and West
- Small harbours→ down in river bays,
- Sheer cliff over sea
3
Q
Geographical Context
The physical environment: The geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum: RESOURCES
A
POMPEII
- Water from Sarno river
- Market gardens, orchards, vineyards
- Fish in sea → EVIDENCE FROM FISH MOSAIC
- Fertile lands→ agriculture, grazing
- Port, estuary shipping
HERCULANEUM
- Water available from streams
- Limited port facilities
- Main coast road running through straight across town
4
Q
Plans and Streetscapes
A
POMPEII
- P covers 66 ha. (Surrounded by defensive walls)
- Grid pattern not as precisely applied
- Greek influence: Layout of streets and roads that divided towns into Insulae
- Early history: Defensive stone walls and 8 gateways leading to town
- When P became a Roman colony- some sections of walls were knocked down for housing. Lost importance
- Roman paving techniques: Raised footpaths on either side of road
- Stepping stones provided for pedestrian use. Still have access to wheeled traffic
- Larger manufacturing town
- Amphitheatre: 20,000 people. Problem with social crisis
- Vineyards inside and outside
HERCULANEUM
- Herc: Follows Classical Greek layout. Straight streets divide town into Insulae
- Sea walls- large vaulted chambers for boats
- Streets had less traffic
- More efficient drainage and sewer systems
- Roman Law: streets minimum of 5m wide. P met this, but - H had 2.5 m in some areas
- Narrower streets; less people, no need for carts, smaller trading centre, not manufacturing town
- About ⅓ size of P (12-20 ha)
- No stepping stones
- Remains of double story houses- carbonised timber. People lived upstairs and shops downstairs
“A confused jumble of shops, workshops, crafts, residential and horticultural plots across the whole city” AWH
BOTH
- Via→ main highway
- Decumani→ Roads running East to West
- Cardines → Roads running North to South
- Materials → volcanic; tufa and basalt
- Street names→ modern construct E.g. Via Del Abbondanza
- Water fountains at intersections/ Lead pipes for water (lead poisoning)
5
Q
The limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources
A
LIMITATIONS
- Gaps in evidence
- Nature of ancient society: gaps about lower class women- no records, few possessions, not written about
- Destruction of Eruption
- Looting and destruction of sites
- Mainly political→ surviving sources
- Gaps encouraging romanticizing and speculation. E.g. House of Surgeon
RELIABILITY
- Need to ask context and purpose of sources
- Pliny- assumed to be eye witness but letters written from memory years later→ motivated by Pliny’s desire to glorify role of uncle
- Graffiti- reveals bias
- Commemorative inscriptions usually bias- highlight only positive things about person
EVALUATION
- Consider context in which source was produced
- Purpose and perspective of author
- How source relates to social and political context
6
Q
Warnings of eruption
A
- Earthquake of 62 AD→ First warning sign Vesuvius returning to life
- “Pompeii, the famous city of Campania, has been laid low by an earthquake”- SENECA- NATURALES, VI
- 24 August morning→ larger waves than normal, tremors increased intensity, animals agitated, minor steam explosions from V showered fine ash
7
Q
Eruption general information
A
- Pliny→ 24th August (some historians believe it occurred in November)
- Pompeii → more pumice fallout
- 1st surge → covers Herculaneum
- 4th surge onwards → Covers Pompeii
- Most would have died from asphyxiation and thermal shock within 2 minutes of surge
- “Respiratory tracts would have become blocked with a plug of mucus and ash or their bodies ‘baked’ in the intense heat.” DR ESTELLE LAZAR
- 6 layers in strata → 6 pyroclastic surges
8
Q
Plinian phase of eruption (1)
A
- Late morning to early afternoon (umbrella shaped cloud moves East)
- Accumulation of pumice over P
- Day turns into night
- By 8pm- heavy pumice fallouts, tremors and electrical storms
- “A cloud of unusual size and appearance…It’s general appearance can be best described as being like an umbrella pine…” PLINY THE YOUNGER- LETTERS TO TACITUS
- Some Pompeians fled immediately
- Many sheltered in sealed rooms and cellars (never escaped)
- Herc- many escaped by sea.
- Pliny the elder launched a warship to sail across the bay- reached Stabiae
9
Q
Pelèan Phase of eruption (2)
A
- 1am-8am (25th Aug) Towns of Vesuvius hit by 6 surges ( billowing ash and superheated gases) and flows (volcanic fragments made fluid by high temps)
- Herc waited on beach to be rescued- but died in S1 from asphyxiation and thermal shock
- Herc sealed forever in S2
- Pompeii- People who left it too late were cut down, trampled and felled by masonry. Asphyxiated by ash
- Pliny the Elder died on beach in Stabiae- Pliny the Younger and mother escaped Misenum just before the final surge
10
Q
Pyroclastic Flow
A
Much denser, hotter, dry avalanche of ground hugging molten rock, pumice and gases. Moved slower (50kms per hour)
11
Q
Pyroclastic Surge
A
Low density, cloud of hot ash and rock; billows over terrain, barely touching ground. Travels at high speeds (up to 300km per hour)
12
Q
Deaths in Pompeii
A
- Some fled immediately → May have survived if reached safe distance
- 600 people killed→ roofs collapsed under weight of pumice and rock
- People climbed onto roofs→ asphyxiation
- People breathed in- very fine ash formed sticky paste, clogged lungs- couldn’t breathe
- “Most deadly surge (4th surge) occurred at approx 7.30 am- 25th August, killing all who remained in the city. Described burning wind filled with dust and ash that filled the lungs instantly choking and killing all in its path.” HAROLD SIGURDSON
- Sigurdson→ 6th surge; strongest, widespread, killed many who attempted to flee
13
Q
Deaths in Herculaneum
A
- Italian scholars → people died thermal shock
- Brains boiled, skulls exploded; intense heat.
- Blackened skulls with brain matter
- 300 people in boat sheds→ still alive 12 hours after 1st blast
- Those exposed to 500℃→ dead instantly
- “These individuals do not display any evidence of voluntary self-protective reaction or agony.” ALBERTO INCORONATO- UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES
- Tooth enamel cracked, charring on bones (flesh vapourised)
- Initial vapourisation→ sudden drop in ash temp
- Fists clenched in pugilistic pose
14
Q
The economy: Trade, commerce, industries, occupations
A
TRADE
- Pompeii commercial trading town. Harbour busy with ships. Herc not so much
- Imports→ Wine and pottery
- Exports→ Pottery, tiles, garum. wine, olives, bread, grapes
- Traded with Egyptians and Greek (Temple of Isis) Gladiators, slaves
COMMERCE
- Most streets had shops
- Evidence of weighing tables, coins (sesterces)
- Rent, taxes collected
- Receipts made → wax tablet
INDUSTRIES/OCCUPATION
- Bakeries (Frescoe of baker and his wife)
- Perfume industry (Frieze from House of the Vetti brothers→ cupids making perfume)
- Taverns/ Bars/ Brothels
- Agriculture→ produced wool, grain, grapes, olives
- Fullers/ Dyers → Statue dedicated to Eumachia
- Fishmongers→ Garum tanks, fish tanks, seafood mosaic
- Actors/Musicians→ Theatre
- Markets (Macellum)- aediles→ forum
- Food shops → Thermopolium, tabernae
15
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
SENATORIAL ELITE
A
- Top of social pyramid→ visited area, had villas
- Along coast near Stabiae→ aristocracy constructed grand villas
16
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
LOCAL ELITE
A
- Wealthy traders, businessmen
- Dominated towns councils → filled key municipal offices
- Sought to imitate lives of senators
- Wealth rather than aristocratic birth gave positions → over years traditions of office holdings established them as leaders of society
- Below this class→ ordinary traders, artisans, shopkeepers, farmers with small holdings
17
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
POPULUS
A
- Freeborn men of Roman background, were citizens of P & H
- Citizens formed the populus
- Could vote at Rome in the tribus Menenia, a voting ‘tribe’
18
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
WOMEN
A
- No vote, couldn’t hold public office or sit on town council
- Pompeian women → active role in political life on town
- Could be educated→ could own property
- Family wealth and inheritance→ women become wealthy
- Husband could leave wife business to run
- Women could own and let out property
- “ She keeps copies of my books to read again and again.” PLINY THE YOUNGER
19
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
SLAVES AND FREEDMEN
A
- Slaves were everywhere, owned by householders, imperial family, estate owners, businessmen
- Sold in business transactions → wax tablets preserved,
- Freedmen sometimes became wealthy- bought own slaves
- “I suspect she was a slave. There are scars on the upper shafts of her humeri…that means she used these bones for heavier work than she should have.” S.C. BISEL- HEALTH AND NUTRITION AT HERCULANEUM
20
Q
Local political life
A
- Problems interpreting political graffiti→ fragments, ambiguous, some written by professional signwriters
- Dating→ No indications of what year notice dates from
- Group support for candidates “All the mat makers (tegettari) together beg of you to make Lollius aedile.” (CIL IV: 747)
- Only males voted- some not thought worthy of that right (actors, innkeepers)
- Electoral notices (epigraphic sources) → most people (including women) politically aware
- Pompeii- political activity intense: “Competition for office was so fierce it was harder to gain a seat in the City Council of Pompeii than in the Roman Senate.” CICERO
- Executive → Board of 4 ( 2 pairs of duoviri and aediles)
- Every 5 years magistrates conducted census
- Duoviri→ Administered city (roads, markets, sewer) Maintained order and sponsorship of spectacles and theatre. Responsible for criminal and civil cases
- Aediles → Daily administration, roads, public buildings, temples, markets, games
- Curia (council) → Controlled all aspects of public life, finances, taxation, public religion, gave instructions to Board
- Every March→ election fever, candidates supporters write slogans on walls, women influenced voters
21
Q
Everyday life: LEISURE ACTIVITIES
A
- Cock/ Rooster fighting
- Gladiator battles
- Baths→ social interactions
- Amphitheatre
- Exercise → Palaestra
- Banqueting → social interactions
- Brothels (26)
22
Q
Everyday life: FOOD AND DINING
A
- Favoured pastimes→ banqueting at home, poorer classes ate in taverns (100 found in Pompeii)
- Well rounded, balanced diet (healthy)
- Basis→ seafood
- Red meat, fresh produce, variety of fruits (orchids)
- Tabernae→ wine, fast food outlets
- Bakeries→ thermopolium, jars
23
Q
Everyday life: HEALTH
A
- Lazar- Teeth ground flat from gritty bread
- Cleanliness from baths, access to clean water, pipes/aqueduct
- Lead pipes→ lead poisoning
- Calcium from fish
- Palaestra→ exercise
- Public toilets→ removal of waste
24
Q
Everyday life: Clothing
A
- Linen came from Egypt, wool made locally
- Imprint of fabric in plaster casts
- Everyone wore sandals, Only slaves wore hats
- Fuller’s→ washed clothes, used urine as bleach
25
Q
Everyday life: BATHS
A
- Frigidarium → cold
- Tepidarium → warm
- Caldarium → Hot
- Social activity→ no privacy issues
- Oil applied to body and scraped off with strigil
- Slaves, underfloor heating
26
Q
Everyday life: WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION
A
- Aqueduct transport water
- Castellum→ water storage
- Aqueduct → Castellum → (public baths, fountains, toilets, private homes of wealthy)
- Herc→ more efficient drainage system
- No privacy in toilets → scrubbing brush shared
- Good sanitation→ cleanliness and health
27
Q
Public buildings: BASILICA
A
- Most elaborate structure in forum→ where legal and business activities took place
- Large hall, 2 storey tribunal built on west side, lower floor→ archives, upper floor→ platform for judges
28
Q
Public buildings: TEMPLES
A
- Very religious, prayed, made daily offerings, sacrifices
- 10 found at Pompeii, 0 at Herculaneum→ dedicated to Apollo, Isis, Jupiter, Venus etc
29
Q
Public buildings: FORUM
A
- Large rectangular space (where majority of political, administrative, legal, commercial, religious and social activities took place)
- Election of magistrates, religious ceremonies, latest news from rome announcements, trade in goods (grain, cloth, wool) markets, hire of lawyers/doctors,
- Pompeii→ forum central focus. North side; temple to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Southside; government buildings. West side; Basilica, temple of Apollo. East side; Fish and meat markets
30
Q
Public buildings: THEATRE
A
- Pompeii; Large Theatre (seated 5000), smaller Odeon. Lower tiers, clad in marble→ reserved for elite.
- Performances→ plays, farces, pantomimes. Odeon→ roofed, acoustics good for poetry readings, concerts
- Herc→ small temple located at centre, freestanding structure
31
Q
Public buildings: PALAESTRA
A
- Colonnaded rectangular areas→ open grassed space in middle (Greek influence)
- Exercises, running, discus, javelin competitions.
- Swimming pool located next to it
32
Q
Public buildings: Ampitheatres
A
- Used for games; gladiatorial battles (honour the gods), hunts/battles ft wild animals,
- Whoever paid for games became more popular→ political purpose
33
Q
Private buildings- villas, houses, shops
A
VILLAS
- Large, luxurious, multi-roomed on outskirts of Pompeii and Herculaneum
- Also built on coast, owned by wealthy citizens of Rome. E.g. Villa of the Papyri-(Herc)
HOUSES
- Domus/atrium house, atrium-peristyle house, insulae or apartment house, villas
- Domus/atrium→ most popular type of house, free standing homes, owned by senatorial or equestrian class
- Atrium→ Peristyle centerpiece of wealthy homes. Peristyle gave access to dining/living room
- Insulae/apartment→ multi-storied apartments. Not common
“Change over time, with a movement from the late republican houses to multiple small independent units” AWH
SHOPS
- Most shops located on Via del Abbondanza
- Many were rented front rooms of large private houses
- Some had back rooms for storage, counters on inside, shelves, Taverns had chairs, tables
34
Q
Influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion
A
- Greek influences→ directly from Greek colonies established in South Italy 7th-6th BC
- Hellenistic influences→ From Rome’s conquest and trade with Hellenistic kingdoms of Egypt from 2nd century BC
- Trade between Campania and Alexandria (Egyptian port city) → Influence and Alexandrian craftsmen and foreign workers settled in Campania
- Toponym of Herculaneum → Greek after Greek hero Herakles
- Hellenisation→ architectural innovations e.g. high vestibules, wide atriums, peristyles, large gardens
- Columns in House of the Vetti brothers→ Replicated three orders of Greek columns
- Mosaic panels in House of the Faun→Represented colourful word of Greek theatre
- Adaptations of Greek gods worshipped publicly and privately in P and H
- Mystery cults of Bacchus → introduced from Greece + Cult of Isis → originating in Egypt, worshipped publicly and privately (offered more emotional bond with gods)
- Greek and Eastern slaves in estates, households and taverns. Many prostitutes were Egyptian
- Pompeian theatre→ traditional Greek tragedies and comedies performed
- Palaestra (greek gymnasia) → copies of Greek statues of young athletes
35
Q
Religion overview
A
- Religion greatly influenced by Greeks→ greek gods adopted and adapted to suit Roman needs
- “The most characteristic feature of Roman religion was its essentially political orientation” E. Cantarella
- Each citizen→ political duty to carry out correct rituals to gods (sacrifice and prayer)–> ensure prosperity, good luck, protection for state and people
36
Q
Religion: Temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs: TEMPLES
A
- Pompeii → approx 10 major temples found in or near Forum. Herc→ 0
- Altars found→ suggest sacrifices
- Capitolium temple→ Temple of Jupiter; Inside were gods Jupiter, Juno, Minerva→ temple dominated Pompeian forum
- Temple of Venus→ oldest and largest. Venus patron goddess of Pompeii
- Near forum→ temple of Fortuna Augusta→ held statues of Augustus. → Worship of imperial family was important
- Worship of God Apollo introduced into P during 6th century BC. Temple of Apollo, most ancient sanctuary
37
Q
Religion: Temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs: HOUSEHOLD GODS
A
- Paterfamilias→ Head of household (oldest male) in charge of private rituals inside home
- Lares: Protectors of household
- Lararium; Shrine to lares → Every shop/home had one. Could be wall niche with figurines(poor) 3D miniature temple lined with marble or painted statuettes (rich) Could be wall painted with gods
- Each day/special monthly celebrations→ offerings of wreath or portion of meal to lares, prayers for protection and prosperity said.
- Family ancestors honoured and represented as wax masks kept in house.
38
Q
Religion: Temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs: FOREIGN CULTS
A
- Imperial cult→ Introduced at time of Augustus as new homage
- Cult of Isis→ Popular among women→ offered happiness, salvation, consolation from suffering→ 2 daily services at Temple of Isis→ evidence of wall paintings in temple featured Egyptian landscapes, mythology, priests performing their duties
- Temple of Isis→ paintings, decorations, furniture→ one of the first buildings to have been totally restored after earthquake→ significance of cult
- Cult of Bacchus/Dionysus→ Dionysus (Greek god wine and fertility) first popular than in South Italy became popular as cult of Bacchus→ offered “An escape from worldly reality into mystic communion with the god and the promise of blessed life after death.”L. ZARMATI
39
Q
Religion: Temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs; TOMBS
A
- Not hidden→ constructed alongside busiest streets and outside walls
- 8 Necropolises outside walls of Pompeii→ ‘city of dead’ or cemetery
- Tombs rarely belonged to individual→ popular to have niches for urns of all the household
- Up to paterfamilias→ make sure anyone died in family received proper burial rites to prevent them living on in next life as malevolent entities.
- Poor or people with no families→ belonged to funeral club → ensured cremation
- Tombs could be plain brick chamber, flat roof or elaborate with sculpted monument
- Tombs→ reminded passers by of achievements and social status of dead
- Inscriptions provide info about upper levels of society, freedmen, slaves→ must be remembered, people only inscribed what they considered important and what they wanted others to read
40
Q
Pre-19th Century (treasure hunting period, artefacts destroyed) Domenica Fontana (1592)
A
- Discovered slabs of marble and fresco walls → during engineering project diverting waters of part of Sarno river
41
Q
Pre-19th Century (treasure hunting period, artefacts destroyed) Francesco Pichetti (1689)
A
Discovered stone inscribed with “Decurio Pompeiis” → Thought it was Roman general Pompey the Great
42
Q
Pre-19th Century (treasure hunting period, artefacts destroyed)
Count d’Eleouf (1709)
A
- Workmen sunk a shaft → Reached level of stage in ancient theatre
- Mined theatre if marble states→ many pieces given to European royalty
- Shafts and tunnels dug, gunpowder used→ little care for destruction
- Shaft entrances eventually sealed→ difficult to penetrate solidified volcanic material
43
Q
Pre-19th Century (treasure hunting period, artefacts destroyed)
Charles VII/ De Alcubierre (1732- 1748)
A
- King appointed him to resume excavations at Herc- 1748 no treasure found so dug at Pompeii
- Dug more tunnels out from ancient theatre→ broke through painted walls, tunneled through houses, destroyed artefacts,excavated randomly- kept no records
- Once a site was cleared of artefacts it was backfilled
44
Q
Pre-19th Century (treasure hunting period, artefacts destroyed) Karl Weber (1750)
A
- Discovered Villa of Papyri in Herc→ library of 1800 carbonised papyrus scrolls
- Drew up plans, maps of buildings, recorded artefacts and paintings where he could→ believed important to excavate systematically
45
Q
Pre-19th Century (treasure hunting period, artefacts destroyed)
Francesco La Vega (1764)
A
- Unearthed Odeon (small theatre) in Pompeii and temple of Isis with frescoes
- Uncovered building entirely- complete search for artefacts, documenting notable interiors, kept diary
46
Q
Pre-19th Century (treasure hunting period, artefacts destroyed) Carl Bonucci (1838)
A
- Herculaneum found forum baths, House of the faun, House of tragic poet,whole city blocks, Stabiae baths in Pompeii
- Director of site→ corrupt, no concern for preservation of finds. Theft common and administrative irregularities in museum and excavation.
47
Q
Pre-19th Century (treasure hunting period, artefacts destroyed)
Horace Walpole/ Thomas Gray (1740)
A
Englishmen and poet visited Herculaneum (Grand tour)
48
Q
19th Century and early 20th Century (improvements in archaeology, systematic, recording info, photography used) political changes Giuseppe Fiorelli (1860-1875)
A
- 1863→ Developed method of plaster casting, preserved positions of dead.
- Divided P into insulae, gave each house identifying number. Cleared away ash, earth from previous excavations.
- Kept written record, prepared plans for sites
49
Q
19th Century and early 20th Century (improvements in archaeology, systematic, recording info, photography used) political changes
Giulio De Petra (1893-1901)
A
Excavated House of the Vetti brothers, recreated inner gardens of some houses, restored roofs
50
Q
19th Century and early 20th Century (improvements in archaeology, systematic, recording info, photography used) political changes August Mau (1893-1901)
A
- Categorised Pompeii wall paintings into 4 main styles.
- Provided date range for each style→ helped date buildings
51
Q
19th Century and early 20th Century (improvements in archaeology, systematic, recording info, photography used) political changes Vittorio Spinazzola (1911-1924)
A
- Excavated along Via dell Abbondanza (main street)
- Restored facades of buildings→ revealed houses, shops, taverns, workshops. Reconstructed upper stories and balconies (from remains of buildings, paintings)
- Photography → recorded stages of excavation (helped conservators working to repair 20th century damage to buildings from theft, vandalism, exposure to elements, war)
52
Q
19th Century and early 20th Century (improvements in archaeology, systematic, recording info, photography used) political changes Amedeo Maiuri (1924-1961)
A
- Uncovered walls of Pompeii, established sequence of construction. Uncovered cemetary, fully excavated Villa of Mysteries,
- Used mechanical equipment to dig away debris from previous excavations
- Put roofs over buildings→ wall paintings in some buildings faded without being recorded. Excavations done too quickly, some unrecorded.
53
Q
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken) Fausto Zevi (1977)
A
- Established international cooperation to study Pompeii. - Took around 1800 photos. Used electric machinery to excavate Herculaneum
54
Q
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken) Estelle Lazar (1986)
A
- Discovered Pompeii plaster casts still had bones inside. - Brought CT scans, x-rays on site and MRI scans in Australia.
- Can deduce sex, age, appearance, height, general health, status, occupations, cause of death. → Should we disturb human remains
55
Q
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken)
Dr Sara Bisel (1932-1996)
A
- Recreated lives from skeletons→ gave them a story before she finished research (inaccurate)
- Discovered occupations, appearances of skeletons→ facial reconstruction, scans, sorted through skeletons
- National Geographic paid her to go to Pompeii→ put rings on skeletons it didn’t belong to, moved skeletons (accused of tampering)
56
Q
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken)
Andrew Wallace Hadrill (1983-2016)
A
- Director of Herculaneum Conservation project
- Talks about need for conservation and preservation, tourism and modern archaeology ruined sites
57
Q
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken)
Alison Cooley
A
Studied writings and texts of Rome and Pompeii, epigraphy of Rome
58
Q
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken) Penelope Allison (2005)
A
- Found atrium wasn’t for business→ area contained cupboards for domestic items (pots, spinning equipment
- Suggested women, slaves wander in and out all the time→ spaces would be lively and open
- Reexamined archaeological records → men typically took paintings, valuables and left the rest
59
Q
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken) Wilhelmena Jashmenski (1955-2007)
A
- Discovered gardens integral part of everyday life→ most dwellings had space to grow figs, olives, cherries, other fruits and vegetables.
- Larger gardens→ commercial uses (vineyards, nurseries)
- Gardens sites of religious activities→ animal sacrifices, meditation
60
Q
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken)
Jaye Mackenzie Clark
A
Investigated factors leading to popularity of styles of pottery → pinpoints initial supply and use of Vesuvian Sigillata
61
Q
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken)
Superintendent Pietro Guzzo (1994)
A
Moratorium adopted→ need to preserve not excavate→ try to preserve site
62
Q
Changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum OVERVIEW
A
BEFORE 19TH CENTURY
- Treasure hunting
- Pompeii first discovered in 1590’s and excavations began in 1689
- Herculaneum first discovered in 1709
- No systematic archaeology, Sporadic excavation
- Looting, destruction, archaeologists hindering other
LATE 19TH CENTURY- EARLY 20TH CENTURY
- Adopt systematic approach to archaeology
- E.g. Giuseppe Fiorelli (grid system of Pompeii, plaster casts)
- Early photography/ written recording
- Multidisciplinary approach, E.g. August Mau (artwork- 4 styles)
- Greater focus on conservation. E.g roofs- however done poorly
- Mechanical equipment to dig away debris
LATE 20TH CENTURY
- Multidisciplinary approach
- Improvements in technology allow for more to be discovered
- Women involved → Creates gender equality in info about site
- Moratorium adopted → Need to preserve not excavate
- Different materials used to preserve. E.g. Resin
63
Q
Changing interpretations: Impact of new research and technologies
A
TECHNOLOGIES USED
- X- rays
- DNA
- CT Scans
- Camera/Photography
- 3D Computer Imagery
- NASA image tech- papyrus scrolls
- Thermoluminescence - Mackenzie Clark
64
Q
Italian contributions
The Italian Central Institute for Cataloguing and documentation
A
Documentation 18000 photographs → painted walls, mosaic floors
65
Q
Italian contributions:
Soprintendenza archeologica Di Pompei
Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo
A
- Restorations, maintenance of endangered structures→ made priority
- Guzzo keeps friendly eye on Pompeii tourists
66
Q
Italian contributions:
Via Del Abbondanza Project (2004)
A
- To record and create photomosaics of the 900m Via Dell’abbondanza.
- Digital photography to survey and record standing structures
67
Q
Italian contributions:
The Neapolis Project: (1980-1982)
A
- Interlink electronic database→ archival documents, archaeological remains
- Italian research institute
68
Q
Italian contributions:
The Philodemus Project:
A
- Aim→ reconstruct new texts Philodemus’ works on poetics, rhetoric
- 1752→ workers discovered papyrus scrolls
- Multispectral imaging developed→ read scrolls
69
Q
Italian contributions:
Great Pompeii Project
A
- Effort to preserve Pompeii and make it accessible to public
- 2013- European Union pledged £105 million to restore city.
70
Q
Italian contributions:
Herculaneum Centre
A
- To promote study, preservation and enhancement of Herculaneum
- Construction, preservation and restoration
71
Q
International contributions:
The Houses in Pompeii Project (1977)
A
Investigate, salvage architectural features, mosaics, wall paintings that have been excavated, but not recorded
72
Q
International contributions:
The Pompeii Forum project (1988)
A
- Produce more accurate plans/evaluations of surviving remains
- Initiated→ architectural plans of forum were inaccurate
73
Q
International contributions:
The Insula of Menander Project (1978)
A
- Readress deficiencies in early records of insula (hasty, little documentation)
- Aim→ draw general conclusions about insula social structure over time and final from in 79 AD
- Found→ frequent building changes and boundaries of properties changed over time
74
Q
International contributions:
The British School at Rome (BSR) Pompeii Project
A
- Led by Andrew Wallace Hadrill
- Purpose→ Take 3000m² insula and see what can be discovered
- Found→ city not frozen in time. House of Impluvium remodeled in 1st century→ new atrium floors raised.
75
Q
International contributions:
Villa of Oplontis Project
A
- Aim→ Study 2 villas (Villa of Poppaea and Villa of Crassius) to see how villas changed over time
- Found→ wall paintings severely deteriorated over time
- Restoration work being undertaken at time of eruption
76
Q
International contributions:
Herculaneum Conservation Project
A
- David Packard and Andrew Wallace Hadrill
- 2000→ Packard Humanities Institute pledged to give $10 million a year for 10 years
- Purpose→ Excavate, preserve Herc and stop decay, deal with groundwater problem
- Study waste→ learn about what people ate, work they did .
77
Q
Natural elements of destruction
A
- Heavy rains→ walls, shops collapse
- Interiors never meant to be exposed to weather, are: sun, wind, rain
- Light→ fades frescoes, deteriorates carbonised objects quickly
- Strong sun→ bleaches, fades paintings
- Oil drops, grit, bacteria, mould spores damage
- Acid rain→ discolouration, corrosion of surfaces
- Weeds/parasitic plants→ grow over ruins
- Fungi/algae→ grow where poor drainage→ clog gutters, sewers
- Roots→ break foundations, loosen mosaic floors
- Ivy→ penetrates plaster, destroys stonework
- Pigeons→ acidic poo corrosive on floor, wall decorations, pick at carbonised wood
- Feral dogs
- Pompeii→ groundwater damages, not effective sewerage
- Herc→ surface water drained off house→ deterioration of tepidarium roof (suburban baths)
78
Q
Human elements of destruction
A
- Early excavations
- Allied bombing (1943) walls, columns crash
- Incorrect wood replacement→ rot, termites
- Modern varnish→ wax can’t breathe
- Perspex cases (protect graffiti) create humid dirt trap
- Steel roof built House of Mosaic Atrium (Herc) collapsed and broke floor
- (1975-2000) → 600 items stolen
- Frescoes cut from walls→ robbers
- (1997)Heads cut from plaster casts
- Tourists walk streets, mosaics→ wears down
- Humid breath, camera flashes→ deteriorate wall paintings
- People brush up against walls, touch walls/columns→ body oils on ancient surfaces
- Rubbish dumped
- Graffiti left by tourists
79
Q
Ethical issues: Study and display of human remains
A
STUDY
- On site exhibition will be installed → Copies of skeletons and artefacts will be displayed
- Herc- 80 of 300 skeletons found have been removed
- Links what diseases were back then to what diseases are now
- Sarah Bisel (1980’s) Studied bones and made conclusions about their lives → some conclusions highly speculative (especially identity and occupation of individuals)
- Tourists aren’t given warning, may be sensitive to deaths
- Artefacts→ sold on the market
LIFE/HEALTH
- International Council of Museums→ human remains should be presented with great tact and care for feelings of human dignity
- Sewerage in Herc→ balanced diet, everyone ate the same, used fertile resources of region
- SOURCES: Seafood mosaic, Bacchus frescoe, Garum tanks
DISPLAY
- Early excavations→ plaster casts considered appropriate for display
- Skeletons assembled incorrectly→ alleged ‘last moments’
- Herc skeletons mixed up and stored together, not systematically
- Pompeii remains→ displayed in rusty, dusty cases, no labelling
- Not climate controlled→ camera flashes
- Bodies moved and placed together for effect→ false impression of real life situation
“Human remains should be displayed in a manner consistent with professional standards.” INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF MUSEUMS
