Cities of Vesuvius: Syllabus Flashcards
1
Q
Geographical Context
The physical environment: The geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum: GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
A
- Campania- fertile, volcanic plain.
- Vesuvius dominates plain. P and H are from volcanic spurts and mounds
- Region mineral rich in volcanic soils- supports vines, olives, fruit and sheep
- Pompeii was 500m from the coast. Stabiae on one side and Herc on the other
- Herculaneum was on bay- 16km North East of Pompeii
“ Then indeed there is that wonderful and life-sustaining and healthy atmosphere that lasts all the year through.” PLINY THE ELDER- NATURAL HISTORY
2
Q
Geographical Context
The physical environment: The geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum: NATURAL FEATURES
A
POMPEII
- Situated on raised area (prehistoric lava flow)
- Natural bay- site for port
- Sarno river→ water and shiping
- Fertile land → farming estates
- Hot springs nearby
HERCULANEUM
- Volcanic plateau→ South west of Mt V
- 2 streams→ East and West
- Small harbours→ down in river bays,
- Sheer cliff over sea
3
Q
Geographical Context
The physical environment: The geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum: RESOURCES
A
POMPEII
- Water from Sarno river
- Market gardens, orchards, vineyards
- Fish in sea → EVIDENCE FROM FISH MOSAIC
- Fertile lands→ agriculture, grazing
- Port, estuary shipping
HERCULANEUM
- Water available from streams
- Limited port facilities
- Main coast road running through straight across town
4
Q
Plans and Streetscapes
A
POMPEII
- P covers 66 ha. (Surrounded by defensive walls)
- Grid pattern not as precisely applied
- Greek influence: Layout of streets and roads that divided towns into Insulae
- Early history: Defensive stone walls and 8 gateways leading to town
- When P became a Roman colony- some sections of walls were knocked down for housing. Lost importance
- Roman paving techniques: Raised footpaths on either side of road
- Stepping stones provided for pedestrian use. Still have access to wheeled traffic
- Larger manufacturing town
- Amphitheatre: 20,000 people. Problem with social crisis
- Vineyards inside and outside
HERCULANEUM
- Herc: Follows Classical Greek layout. Straight streets divide town into Insulae
- Sea walls- large vaulted chambers for boats
- Streets had less traffic
- More efficient drainage and sewer systems
- Roman Law: streets minimum of 5m wide. P met this, but - H had 2.5 m in some areas
- Narrower streets; less people, no need for carts, smaller trading centre, not manufacturing town
- About ⅓ size of P (12-20 ha)
- No stepping stones
- Remains of double story houses- carbonised timber. People lived upstairs and shops downstairs
“A confused jumble of shops, workshops, crafts, residential and horticultural plots across the whole city” AWH
BOTH
- Via→ main highway
- Decumani→ Roads running East to West
- Cardines → Roads running North to South
- Materials → volcanic; tufa and basalt
- Street names→ modern construct E.g. Via Del Abbondanza
- Water fountains at intersections/ Lead pipes for water (lead poisoning)
5
Q
The limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources
A
LIMITATIONS
- Gaps in evidence
- Nature of ancient society: gaps about lower class women- no records, few possessions, not written about
- Destruction of Eruption
- Looting and destruction of sites
- Mainly political→ surviving sources
- Gaps encouraging romanticizing and speculation. E.g. House of Surgeon
RELIABILITY
- Need to ask context and purpose of sources
- Pliny- assumed to be eye witness but letters written from memory years later→ motivated by Pliny’s desire to glorify role of uncle
- Graffiti- reveals bias
- Commemorative inscriptions usually bias- highlight only positive things about person
EVALUATION
- Consider context in which source was produced
- Purpose and perspective of author
- How source relates to social and political context
6
Q
Warnings of eruption
A
- Earthquake of 62 AD→ First warning sign Vesuvius returning to life
- “Pompeii, the famous city of Campania, has been laid low by an earthquake”- SENECA- NATURALES, VI
- 24 August morning→ larger waves than normal, tremors increased intensity, animals agitated, minor steam explosions from V showered fine ash
7
Q
Eruption general information
A
- Pliny→ 24th August (some historians believe it occurred in November)
- Pompeii → more pumice fallout
- 1st surge → covers Herculaneum
- 4th surge onwards → Covers Pompeii
- Most would have died from asphyxiation and thermal shock within 2 minutes of surge
- “Respiratory tracts would have become blocked with a plug of mucus and ash or their bodies ‘baked’ in the intense heat.” DR ESTELLE LAZAR
- 6 layers in strata → 6 pyroclastic surges
8
Q
Plinian phase of eruption (1)
A
- Late morning to early afternoon (umbrella shaped cloud moves East)
- Accumulation of pumice over P
- Day turns into night
- By 8pm- heavy pumice fallouts, tremors and electrical storms
- “A cloud of unusual size and appearance…It’s general appearance can be best described as being like an umbrella pine…” PLINY THE YOUNGER- LETTERS TO TACITUS
- Some Pompeians fled immediately
- Many sheltered in sealed rooms and cellars (never escaped)
- Herc- many escaped by sea.
- Pliny the elder launched a warship to sail across the bay- reached Stabiae
9
Q
Pelèan Phase of eruption (2)
A
- 1am-8am (25th Aug) Towns of Vesuvius hit by 6 surges ( billowing ash and superheated gases) and flows (volcanic fragments made fluid by high temps)
- Herc waited on beach to be rescued- but died in S1 from asphyxiation and thermal shock
- Herc sealed forever in S2
- Pompeii- People who left it too late were cut down, trampled and felled by masonry. Asphyxiated by ash
- Pliny the Elder died on beach in Stabiae- Pliny the Younger and mother escaped Misenum just before the final surge
10
Q
Pyroclastic Flow
A
Much denser, hotter, dry avalanche of ground hugging molten rock, pumice and gases. Moved slower (50kms per hour)
11
Q
Pyroclastic Surge
A
Low density, cloud of hot ash and rock; billows over terrain, barely touching ground. Travels at high speeds (up to 300km per hour)
12
Q
Deaths in Pompeii
A
- Some fled immediately → May have survived if reached safe distance
- 600 people killed→ roofs collapsed under weight of pumice and rock
- People climbed onto roofs→ asphyxiation
- People breathed in- very fine ash formed sticky paste, clogged lungs- couldn’t breathe
- “Most deadly surge (4th surge) occurred at approx 7.30 am- 25th August, killing all who remained in the city. Described burning wind filled with dust and ash that filled the lungs instantly choking and killing all in its path.” HAROLD SIGURDSON
- Sigurdson→ 6th surge; strongest, widespread, killed many who attempted to flee
13
Q
Deaths in Herculaneum
A
- Italian scholars → people died thermal shock
- Brains boiled, skulls exploded; intense heat.
- Blackened skulls with brain matter
- 300 people in boat sheds→ still alive 12 hours after 1st blast
- Those exposed to 500℃→ dead instantly
- “These individuals do not display any evidence of voluntary self-protective reaction or agony.” ALBERTO INCORONATO- UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES
- Tooth enamel cracked, charring on bones (flesh vapourised)
- Initial vapourisation→ sudden drop in ash temp
- Fists clenched in pugilistic pose
14
Q
The economy: Trade, commerce, industries, occupations
A
TRADE
- Pompeii commercial trading town. Harbour busy with ships. Herc not so much
- Imports→ Wine and pottery
- Exports→ Pottery, tiles, garum. wine, olives, bread, grapes
- Traded with Egyptians and Greek (Temple of Isis) Gladiators, slaves
COMMERCE
- Most streets had shops
- Evidence of weighing tables, coins (sesterces)
- Rent, taxes collected
- Receipts made → wax tablet
INDUSTRIES/OCCUPATION
- Bakeries (Frescoe of baker and his wife)
- Perfume industry (Frieze from House of the Vetti brothers→ cupids making perfume)
- Taverns/ Bars/ Brothels
- Agriculture→ produced wool, grain, grapes, olives
- Fullers/ Dyers → Statue dedicated to Eumachia
- Fishmongers→ Garum tanks, fish tanks, seafood mosaic
- Actors/Musicians→ Theatre
- Markets (Macellum)- aediles→ forum
- Food shops → Thermopolium, tabernae
15
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
SENATORIAL ELITE
A
- Top of social pyramid→ visited area, had villas
- Along coast near Stabiae→ aristocracy constructed grand villas
16
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
LOCAL ELITE
A
- Wealthy traders, businessmen
- Dominated towns councils → filled key municipal offices
- Sought to imitate lives of senators
- Wealth rather than aristocratic birth gave positions → over years traditions of office holdings established them as leaders of society
- Below this class→ ordinary traders, artisans, shopkeepers, farmers with small holdings
17
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
POPULUS
A
- Freeborn men of Roman background, were citizens of P & H
- Citizens formed the populus
- Could vote at Rome in the tribus Menenia, a voting ‘tribe’
18
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
WOMEN
A
- No vote, couldn’t hold public office or sit on town council
- Pompeian women → active role in political life on town
- Could be educated→ could own property
- Family wealth and inheritance→ women become wealthy
- Husband could leave wife business to run
- Women could own and let out property
- “ She keeps copies of my books to read again and again.” PLINY THE YOUNGER
19
Q
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
SLAVES AND FREEDMEN
A
- Slaves were everywhere, owned by householders, imperial family, estate owners, businessmen
- Sold in business transactions → wax tablets preserved,
- Freedmen sometimes became wealthy- bought own slaves
- “I suspect she was a slave. There are scars on the upper shafts of her humeri…that means she used these bones for heavier work than she should have.” S.C. BISEL- HEALTH AND NUTRITION AT HERCULANEUM
20
Q
Local political life
A
- Problems interpreting political graffiti→ fragments, ambiguous, some written by professional signwriters
- Dating→ No indications of what year notice dates from
- Group support for candidates “All the mat makers (tegettari) together beg of you to make Lollius aedile.” (CIL IV: 747)
- Only males voted- some not thought worthy of that right (actors, innkeepers)
- Electoral notices (epigraphic sources) → most people (including women) politically aware
- Pompeii- political activity intense: “Competition for office was so fierce it was harder to gain a seat in the City Council of Pompeii than in the Roman Senate.” CICERO
- Executive → Board of 4 ( 2 pairs of duoviri and aediles)
- Every 5 years magistrates conducted census
- Duoviri→ Administered city (roads, markets, sewer) Maintained order and sponsorship of spectacles and theatre. Responsible for criminal and civil cases
- Aediles → Daily administration, roads, public buildings, temples, markets, games
- Curia (council) → Controlled all aspects of public life, finances, taxation, public religion, gave instructions to Board
- Every March→ election fever, candidates supporters write slogans on walls, women influenced voters
21
Q
Everyday life: LEISURE ACTIVITIES
A
- Cock/ Rooster fighting
- Gladiator battles
- Baths→ social interactions
- Amphitheatre
- Exercise → Palaestra
- Banqueting → social interactions
- Brothels (26)
22
Q
Everyday life: FOOD AND DINING
A
- Favoured pastimes→ banqueting at home, poorer classes ate in taverns (100 found in Pompeii)
- Well rounded, balanced diet (healthy)
- Basis→ seafood
- Red meat, fresh produce, variety of fruits (orchids)
- Tabernae→ wine, fast food outlets
- Bakeries→ thermopolium, jars
23
Q
Everyday life: HEALTH
A
- Lazar- Teeth ground flat from gritty bread
- Cleanliness from baths, access to clean water, pipes/aqueduct
- Lead pipes→ lead poisoning
- Calcium from fish
- Palaestra→ exercise
- Public toilets→ removal of waste
24
Q
Everyday life: Clothing
A
- Linen came from Egypt, wool made locally
- Imprint of fabric in plaster casts
- Everyone wore sandals, Only slaves wore hats
- Fuller’s→ washed clothes, used urine as bleach
25
Q
Everyday life: BATHS
A
- Frigidarium → cold
- Tepidarium → warm
- Caldarium → Hot
- Social activity→ no privacy issues
- Oil applied to body and scraped off with strigil
- Slaves, underfloor heating
26
Q
Everyday life: WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION
A
- Aqueduct transport water
- Castellum→ water storage
- Aqueduct → Castellum → (public baths, fountains, toilets, private homes of wealthy)
- Herc→ more efficient drainage system
- No privacy in toilets → scrubbing brush shared
- Good sanitation→ cleanliness and health
27
Q
Public buildings: BASILICA
A
- Most elaborate structure in forum→ where legal and business activities took place
- Large hall, 2 storey tribunal built on west side, lower floor→ archives, upper floor→ platform for judges
28
Q
Public buildings: TEMPLES
A
- Very religious, prayed, made daily offerings, sacrifices
- 10 found at Pompeii, 0 at Herculaneum→ dedicated to Apollo, Isis, Jupiter, Venus etc
29
Q
Public buildings: FORUM
A
- Large rectangular space (where majority of political, administrative, legal, commercial, religious and social activities took place)
- Election of magistrates, religious ceremonies, latest news from rome announcements, trade in goods (grain, cloth, wool) markets, hire of lawyers/doctors,
- Pompeii→ forum central focus. North side; temple to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Southside; government buildings. West side; Basilica, temple of Apollo. East side; Fish and meat markets
30
Q
Public buildings: THEATRE
A
- Pompeii; Large Theatre (seated 5000), smaller Odeon. Lower tiers, clad in marble→ reserved for elite.
- Performances→ plays, farces, pantomimes. Odeon→ roofed, acoustics good for poetry readings, concerts
- Herc→ small temple located at centre, freestanding structure
31
Q
Public buildings: PALAESTRA
A
- Colonnaded rectangular areas→ open grassed space in middle (Greek influence)
- Exercises, running, discus, javelin competitions.
- Swimming pool located next to it
