Textbook Unit 2 Flashcards
evidence-based medicine:
The use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients or the delivery of health services.
critical thinking:
A skeptical attitude that encourages health care providers and researchers to evaluate evidence and scrutinize conclusions
example of critical thinking study
cause effect relaitonships
confirmation bias
A form of faulty reasoning in which our expectations prevent us from seeing alternative explanations for our observations.
Institutional Review Board (IRB):
rotects research participants from harm by permitting only studies that follow a strict code of ethics
Epidemiology:
The scientific study of the frequency, distribution, and causes of a particular disease or other health outcomes in a population.
Descriptive studies research setting
Field or laboratory
Data Collection Method of Descriptive studies
Case studies, surveys, interviews, focus groups and naturalistic observation
Discriptive studies strengths
In-depth
information about one person; often leads to new hypotheses; detects naturally occurring relationships among variables
Descriptive studies weaknesses
Non-direct control
over variables; subject to bias of observer; single cases may be misleading; cannot determine causality; correlation may mask extraneous variables
Research setting for Experimental studies
Usually laboratory
Research setting for Epidemiological studies
Usually conducted in the field
research setting for Experimental studies
Usually laboratory
Research setting for Meta-analysis
No new data are collected
Data Collection Method for Meta-analysis
Statistical combination of the results of many studies
Strengths for Experimental studies
A high degree of control over independent and dependent variables; random assignment eliminates preexisting differences among groups
Strengths for Epidemiological studies
Useful in determining disease etiology; easy to replicate; good generalizability
Strengths for Meta-analysis
Helps make sense of conflicting reports; replicable
Weaknesses of Experimental studies
The artificiality of laboratory may limit the generalizability of results; certain variables cannot be investigated for practical or ethical reasons
Weaknesses of Epidemiological studies
Some variables must be controlled by selection rather than by direct manipulation; time- consuming; expensive
Weaknesses of Meta-analysis studies
Potential bias due to the selection of studies included
Data Collection Method for Experimental studies
Statistical comparison of experimental and control groups
Data Collection Method for Epidemiological studies
Statistical comparisons between groups exposed to different risk factors
Data Collection Method for Meta-Analysis
Statistical combination of the results of many studies
descriptive study:
A research method in which researchers observe and record participants’ behaviours, often forming hypotheses that are later tested more systematically; includes case studies, interviews and surveys, focus groups, and observational studies.
A case study:
one person (or, sometimes, one group) is studied in depth in the hope of revealing general principles.
example of a case study
chronic-pain patients may be asked to complete a questionnaire related to their problem that sheds light on the effectiveness of previous treatments and the impact of their condition on their daily functioning.
Interview:
often used by clinical health psychologists as a start
Surveys:
for developing supportive working relationships with patients.
example of a survey for a case study
chronic-pain patients may be asked to complete a questionnaire related to their problem that sheds light on the effectiveness of previous treatments and the impact of their condition on their daily functioning.
Focus Groups:
in which a small number of participants gather to discuss a specified topic or issue, are sometimes used as an alternative to one-on-one interviews.
observational study:
A nonexperimental research method in which a researcher observes and records the behaviour of a research participant.
researchers’ roles in an observational study include
In an observational study, the researcher observes participants’ behaviour and records relevant data, such as the facial expressions this newborn makes while sleeping.
example of an observational study
a researcher interested in the physiological effects of everyday hassles might have participants wear a heart-rate monitor while commuting to and from school or work in rush-hour traffic.
structured observations:
often take place in the laboratory and involve tasks such as role-playing or responding to a correlation
correlation coefficient:
A statistical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, and thus of how well one predicts the other.
Scatter Plot:
A graphed cluster of data points, each of which represents the values of two variables in a descriptive study.
statistical literacy:
The ability to read and interpret statistics and to think critically about arguments that use statistics as evidence.
most common ways health psychology use experimental studies
experiments are commonly used in health psychology to investigate the effects of health-related behaviours (exercise, diet, etc.) on an illness (e.g., heart disease).
how are experiments used in health psychology
systematically manipulating (varying) one or more independent variables (the “causes”) while looking for changes in one or more dependent variables (the “effects”) and controlling (holding constant) all other variables.
Manipulating in experimental studies Means
(Varying)
Independent Variables in experimental studies Means
(the Causes)
Dependent Variable in experimental studies Means
the effects
controlling in experimental studies Means
holding constant
A psychologist interested in studying the relationship between exercise and depression is the 1st step should they take.
Using observations, surveys, interviews, and case study results determined that there is a negative correlation between the amount of exercise and depression levels. Higher exercise levels predict lower levels of depression.
A psychologist interested in studying the relationship between exercise and depression is the 2nd step should they take.
Use an experiment to test the hypothesis is that exercising more will power depression levels in mildly depressed individuals.
Independent variable: exercise
Dependent variable: depression levels
A psychologist interested in studying the relationship between exercise and depression is the 3rd step should they take.
Re-administer surveys that assess depression levels. Compare depression levels before and after for each participant, and calculate any differences between the experimental and control conditions.
quasi means
resembling
quasi-experiment:
A study comparing two groups that differ naturally on a specific variable of interest.
example of a quasi-experiment:
suppose that researchers wish to investigate the effect of exercise on academic achievement is similar to an experiment in that it involves two or more comparison groups. .
cross-sectional study
A type of observational study in which data are collected from a population, or representative subset, at one specific point in time.
longitudinal study
A study in which a single group of people is observed over a long span of time.
John Snow :
inferred that the cholera came from an as-yet- unidentified “poison” in the polluted water, and thus the fieldof epidemiology was born.
Morbidity:
As a measure of health, the number of cases of a specific illness, injury, or disability in a given group of people at a given time.
mortality:
As a measure of health, the number of deaths due to a specific cause in a given group of people at a given time.
incidence:
The number of new cases of a disease or condition that occur in a specific population within a defined time interval.
prevalence:
The total number of diagnosed cases of a disease or conditions that exist at a given time.
Etiology:
The scientific study of the causes or origins of specific diseases.
have three fundamental objectives of Epidemiologists 3pt
Identify the etiology of a particular disease in order to generate hypotheses.
Evaluate the hypotheses.
Test the hypotheses by assessing the effectiveness of specific preventive health interventions.
they count the current cases of illness:
final goal of epidemiological research
assess the effectiveness of intervention programs
retrospective study:
A longitudinal study that looks back at the history of a group of people, often one suffering from a particular disease or condition.
example of a longitudinal study
People who have had heart attack vs not had heart attack out of these factors
case–control study
A retrospective epidemiological study in which people with a disease or condition (cases) are compared with people who are not affected by the disease or condition (controls).
prospective study:
A forward-looking longitudinal study that begins with a healthy group of subjects and follows the development of a particular disease in that sample.
example of a prospective study
would allow researchers to follow hostile men with healthy hearts over time to see whether they eventually develop cardiovascular disease at higher rates than nonhostile men
randomized clinical trial (RCT):
A true experiment that tests the effects of one independent variable (such as a particular drug or treatment) on individuals or on groups of individuals (community field trials).
randomized clinical trial (RCT) example
n testing the effectiveness of an analgesic drug for migraine headaches,
the most common clinical trial for individuals involves the measurement of a baseline (starting point)
Baseline:
starting point level of a condition, followed by a measure of the effectiveness of treatment.
meta-analysis:
A quantitative technique that combines the results of many studies examining the same effect or phenomenon.
five-step framework Step 1- for interpreting tables and graphs.
Getting started: Carefully examine the title; the labels of columns, rows, and graph axes; legends; footnotes; and other details of the table or graph.
Scope
five-step framework Step 2
: WHAT do the numbers mean? Make sure that you know what all the numbers represent. Find the largest and smallest values in each category of the graph or table to get an overall impression of the data. and smallest values in each category of the graph or table toget an overall impression of the data.
five-step framework Step 3
HOW do they differ? Look at the differences in the values of the data in a single row, column, or part of a graph or table. This may involve changes over time, or comparison with a category, such as male and female.
five-step framework Step 4
WHERE are the differences?What are the relationships that connect the variables being presented in the table or graph? Use information from step 3 to help you make comparisons across two or more categories.
five-step framework Step 5
WHY do they change? If you see differences in the data, why do you think they are occurring?
Inferring Causality 6pt
The evidence must be consistent
The alleged cause must have been in place before the disease actually appeared.
The relationship must make sense
There must be a dose–response relationship between the risk factor and health outcome.
The strength of the association between the alleged cause and the health outcome (relative risk) must suggest causality.
The incidence or prevalence of the disease or other adverse health outcomes must drop when the alleged causal factor is removed.
relative risk:
A statistical indicator of the likelihood of a causal relationship between a particular health risk factor and a health outcome; computed as the ratio of the incidence (or prevalence) of a health condition in a group exposed to the risk factor to its incidence (or prevalence) in a group not exposed to the risk factor.
attributable risk:
The actual amount that a disease can be attributed to exposure to a particular risk factor. Attributable risk is determined by subtracting the incidence rate of a disease in people who have been exposed to a risk factor from the incidence rate of the disease in people who have not been exposed to the risk factor.
qualitative research:
Research that focuses on qualities instead of quantities. Participants’ expressed ideas are often part of qualitative studies.
informed consent:
Permission granted by a client, patient, or research participant with full knowledge of the potential risks involved in a treatment, procedure, or research study.
debrief:
The process in which research participants are given more details about the study following its completion.
Scientific misconduct:
is the violation of accepted codes of scholarship and ethical behavior in research
Fabrication:
making up results and recording or reporting them
Falsification:
manipulating research materials or changing data and results such that the research is not accurately represented
Plagiarism:
appropriating another person’s ideas, results, or words without giving appropriate credit
2 pt Critical Thinking and Evidence-Based Medicine
- Our everyday thinking is prone to bias, including making snap judgments and inferring cause and effect inappropriately. Using
- An important aspect of critical thinking in health psychology is statistical literacy, the ability to read and interpret statistics and to think critically about arguments that use statistics as evidence.
Descriptive studies,
which observe and record the behavior of participants, include case studies, interviews and surveys, focus groups, and observation.
The strength and direction of a relationship between two sets of scores are revealed visually by
scatterplots and statistically by the correlation coefficient. Correlation does not imply causality.
The strength and direction of a relationship between two sets of scores are revealed visually by
scatterplots and statistically by the correlation coefficient. Correlation does not imply causality.
In an experiment, are search manipulation or more independent variables while looking for changes in one or more dependent variables
Experiments typically compare an experimental group with a control group.
When health psychologists study variables that cannot be manipulated, what do they do?
they may conduct a quasi-experiment in which participants are assigned to comparison groups on the basis of age, gender, ethnicity, or some other subject variable.
Developmental studies focus on
the ways people change or remain the same over time. In a cross-sectional study, data are collected on the whole study population (such as comparing groups of people of various ages) at a single point in time.
The strength and direction of a relationship between two sets of scores are revealed
visually by scatterplots and statistically by the correlation coefficient. Correlation does not imply causality.
how do longitudinal studies work?
subjects are followed over a long span of time. To compensate for the problem of subjects dropping out over a lengthy span of years, researchers have developed a cross-sectional study, in which different age groups are tested initially and then retested later at various ages.
what do Epidemiological research studies measure?
the distribution of health outcomes, seek to discover the etiology of those outcomes, and test the effectiveness of health interventions. Among the commonly used epidemiological statistics are morbidity, mortality, incidence, and prevalence.
what basic research designs do Epidemiologists use?
including retrospective and prospective studies.
Meta-analysis analyzes data ____, ____, ____ statistically combining the ____of the ___ __between the _______and _______ ____ to enable researchers to evaluate the consistency of findings.
already, published, studies, differences, experimental and control groups
n order to infer causality in epidemiological research, research evidence must be 2pt
consistent and logically sensible and exhibit a dose–response relationship.
the alleged cause must have been in place before the health outcome in question was observed and must result in a reduced prevalence of the condition when removed.
Ethical research entails ensuring certain protections for
participants, and avoiding fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism in conducting studies and reporting results.
