textbook COPY

Question 1

UK Human Rights Act:

Answer 1

This act, passed in 1998, incorporated into UK law the rights contained in the ECHR (Figure 11.2).
It means that any breach of the convention’s rights can be heard in UK courts and need not go to the European Court of Human Rights.
However, appeals related to the verdicts of UK courts in such cases can be sent to, and possibly overturned by, the European Court.
This has led some to believe that the UK has lost some of its sovereignty.

Question 2

rights in the UK Human Rights Act:

Answer 2

Question 3

Human rights versus economic development

Answer 3

There are few, if any, countries in today’s world that give human rights real precedence over economic growth.

When it comes to human rights, countries may be located on a continuum running from ‘no regard’ at one end of the scale to ‘healthy respect’ at the other end.

Most democracies are committed to the principles of human rights, but almost inevitably there are occasions when the interpretation of one of those principles by a particular government does not fall in line with that made by the international community at large.

A recent example involving the UK is the government being chastised by the European Court of Human Rights for denying prisoners the right to vote in the 2015 General Election. The UK abides by the principle that anyone convicted of a serious crime loses certain civil rights (including their physical freedom) while completing their sentence.

a map of global freedom produced by an independent organisation known as Freedom House rates the level of political rights and civil liberties in 210 countries. Based on these ratings, each country is broadly classified as:
* free - there is broad scope for open political competition and a climate of respect for civil liberties
* partly free - there are some clear restrictions on political rights and civil liberties
* not free - basic political rights and civil liberties are absent or systematically violated.

Unfortunately, theres a lack of freedom over large areas of the world, for example much of Asia, Africa and the Middle East.
The map certainly gives the impression of a polarised world, with few countries falling into the ‘partly free’ category.
Countries with the worst ‘Freedom Rating’ of 7.0 in 2015 were largely those where political unrest either prevails or is firmly suppressed.

There were nine in all - five in Africa, two in Asia and two in the Middle East. In terms of economic status, all but one of these countries has very low per capita GDP.

The notable exception is oil-rich Saudi Arabia, which ranks in the top ten richest countries.

At the other end of the scale there were 43 countries with the best
‘Freedom Rating’ of 1.0. Most
are what are widely recognised
as ‘developed’ or ‘advanced’ countries.
But there are some surprises: the list contains countries that are not necessarily renowned for their economic wealth.
Small island states are conspicuous here: Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Palau and Tuvalu in the Pacific;
Barbados, Dominica, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia and St Vincent in the Caribbean; and Cape Verde in the Atlantic.

Question 4

The two Koreas - chalk and cheese

Answer 4

The Korean Peninsula extends some 1,100 km south from mainland Asia into the Pacific Ocean

Just after the end of the Second World War, what had been a Japanese colony was divided into two states, the boundary running along the 38th parallel of latitude.

To the north lies the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (usually referred to as North Korea); to the south lies the Republic of Korea (South Korea).

Since their creation in 1948, the relationship between the two states has ranged from a persistent propaganda war, through provocative incidents, to outright war (the Korean War of 1950-3).

Since then the states have followed two diametrically opposed ideologies.

Question 5

North Korea

Answer 5

North Korea describes itself as a self-reliant socialist state. It holds elections, but they only involve one political party.

North Korea is in effect a totalitarian state with an elaborate personality cult based on the dictatorship of the Kim Jong family.
This family has now supplied three generations of leader
It is without doubt a highly authoritarian regime.

Today, North Korea lives in self-imposed isolation from the rest of the global community. Its people are forbidden to use the internet.

It is widely recognised as a ‘rogue state’ through its possession of nuclear weapons and its vast military forces, its frequent threats against South Korea, as well as its frequent violations of human rights.

The last include the summary trials and executions of dissidents and the arrest of foreigners on the grounds of espionage.

There is no freedom of speech.

Because of its isolation, there are few statistics about conditions in North Korea.

We do know that it spends a huge amount of its GDP on its military forces and armaments.

We also know that North Koreans suffer food shortages, malnutrition and occasional, but severe, famines.
The last of these in the 1990s killed an estimated 2.5 million people, approaching ten per cent of the population.

This is hardly surprising when the regime makes feeding its people a much lower priority than the ‘defence of the country and its strategic industries.

Question 6

South Korea

Answer 6

It has embraced capitalism and has transformed itself from a war-torn country into a high-income advanced economy.

The key to this economic success lies in firm government; increasingly powerful high-tech chaebols (large family-owned businesses) such as Samsung, Hyundai and LG; a committed labour force and a rich human resource of enterprise and technological innovation.

But, interestingly, the first free elections were not held until 1987.

Today, the Democracy Index ranks South Korea number two in Asia.

Large-scale public protests and confrontations with heavy-handed police are not unknown, but it also ranks among the highest in the world in terms of education, healthcare and ease of doing business.

It does, however, live in the shadow of a belligerent and menacing neighbour.
A comparison of the two countries today in terms of per capita GDP sees South Korea ranked 40th in the world and North Korea 195th.

While development is much more than economic performance, taking account of human rights and health, the post-war history of the Korean Peninsula speaks volumes for democracy and capitalism and very little for totalitarianism.

The fact is that North Korea has hardly made a move towards real democracy.
The World Democracy Audit in 2014 ranked North Korea as the most corrupt country in the world and as the least democratic

Question 7

Countries Frequently Invoking Human Rights:

Answer 7

Sweden: Sweden is known for its consistent advocacy for human rights and social justice on the international stage. It actively supports initiatives promoting global equality and human dignity- Sweden is one of the least populated countries in Europe, with a population of less than 10 million people.

Norway: Norway is committed to human rights and has been actively involved in international efforts to address issues such as poverty, gender equality, and access to education and healthcare - Norway also received 268 asylum seekers from Russia, among them Russians fleeing military mobilization.

Canada: Canada often emphasises human rights in its foreign policy, promoting inclusivity, diversity, and respect for fundamental freedoms in international forums - According to Statistics Canada, Canadians rank the Charter of Rights and Freedoms as our most important national symbol

Question 8

Countries Prioritising Economic Development:

Answer 8

China: China has prioritized economic development, implementing policies that have led to rapid industrialization and urbanization, lifting millions out of poverty.

Singapore: Singapore’s economic development-oriented approach has focused on becoming a global financial and technological hub, emphasizing trade, investment, and innovation.

United Arab Emirates (UAE): The UAE has prioritised economic development through diversification, investing in infrastructure, tourism, and renewable energy to boost its economy.

Question 9

Challenges and Debates:

Answer 9

India: India faces ongoing debates and challenges in balancing economic development with human rights concerns. Issues include poverty alleviation, environmental sustainability, and social justice.

Brazil: Brazil navigates debates regarding the conservation of the Amazon rainforest, economic development, and indigenous rights, illustrating the challenges of balancing competing priorities.

Question 10

Global Governance and Cooperation:

Answer 10

United States: The United States engages in global governance and cooperation on human rights through participation in international organizations, treaties, and alliances.- The United States enters into more than 200 treaties and other international agreements each year.

European Union (EU): The EU collaborates on various fronts to uphold human rights standards, emphasizing the importance of shared values among its member states.

Question 11

Cultural Relativism and Universal Standards:

Answer 11

Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia often cites cultural relativism in discussions on human rights, as it follows legal frameworks rooted in Islamic law, but this perspective has been criticized for limitations on freedoms- Saudi Arabia executed 196 people in 2022.

Iran: Iran similarly argues for cultural relativism in interpreting human rights within an Islamic framework, leading to debates about the compatibility of its legal system with international standards - 2021 Iran had executed at least 254 people as of November 8, including at least seven people on alleged terrorism-related charges.

Question 12

Ongoing Dialogue:

Answer 12

South Africa: South Africa’s post-apartheid era(= the system in South Africa under which people of different races were kept separate by law, and white people were given more political rights and other advantages) demonstrates ongoing dialogue about balancing economic development and human rights, as the nation works to address historical inequalities.

Colombia: Colombia engages in ongoing dialogue to address human rights
challenges related to armed conflicts, displacement, and economic development in the post-conflict era.’Colombian internal armed conflict’) began on May 27, 1964

Question 13

The transition to democracy - The ten economic superpowers fall into two groups:

Answer 13

1. those that have ‘arrived’ (the USA, Japan, Germany, France, UK and Italy),
2. those that are ‘emerging’ (China, Brazil, India and Russia).

If we focus on the latter group, it is interesting to compare authoritarian China, which has yet to begin the transition to democracy, with India, which has made the transition.

Question 14

Two emerging superpowers: China and India

Answer 14

These two giant countries, with their vast extents and huge populations, have made remarkable economic progress over the last 25 years.

Together they account for 8.5 per cent of the world’s land area and 36 per cent of its population.

The area of China is roughly three times greater than that of India, and China’s population is 1 billion greater, but India is catching up fast.

Question 15

China

Answer 15

Modern China was founded as a communist country with a one-party government following the Second World War.

However, economic reforms introduced in 1979 have seen China become increasingly involved in the global economy, so much so that today China is described as a ‘socialist market economy’.

An increasing willingness to trade with the capitalist world has led to it rivalling the USA as the world’s largest economy.

But this economic success has been driven by a form of government that has a scant regard for human rights

China’s human rights record has been widely criticised.

Question 16

Listed below are just some of the human rights abuses that make China a target for international protest:

Answer 16

Re-education through labour - this is frequently handed out to critics of the government and followers of banned beliefs.

Suppression of the internet and media freedom - hundreds of websites are blocked or banned in China. China has been described as ‘the world’s leading jailer of journalists’

Unfair trials - the Chinese judicial system falls a long way short of international standards.

Torture - this, and the ill-treatment of detainees, is widespread. It is particularly directed at human rights activists and people detained because of their political or religious beliefs.

Workers’ rights - trade unions are illegal. Workers are not allowed to protest about low wages, poor working conditions, mass lay-offs or corrupt management.

Death penalty - it has been estimated that China accounts for nearly three-quarters of all the world’s executions each year; 46 offences are eligible for the death penalty.

The Chinese government is a highly authoritarian one-party state. Human Rights Watch (HRW) claims that it ‘places arbitrary curbs on expression, association, assembly and religion’.

It also prohibits trade unions and human rights organisations, and controls the judicial system.

The government obstructs domestic and international scrutiny of its human rights record, insisting that any such scrutiny is an attempt to destabilise the country.

The key questions here are:
Would China’s economic development have been more or less had there been a greater respect for human rights?
How vital to its economic success has the availability of a huge labour force of suppressed, exploited and forcibly compliant workers been?

Question 17

India:

Answer 17

India is a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government.

It involves a union of 29 states and 7 territories.

The most recent general election in 2014 brought about a change in government.
The BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party) took over from the Congress Party.
The election was fought mainly on five issues: the stalled economy, rising prices, corruption, security and infrastructure.

While it is shown as a ‘free’ country, it still has some human rights issues.
These include:
incidents of violence against religious minorities, especially Muslims
caste-based discrimination and neglect of tribal communities
sexual abuse and other violence against women and children.

Perhaps most worrying is the fact that members of India’s security forces continue to enjoy impunity for serious human rights violations.

The new government (2015) has expressed a commitment to freedom of speech, however it has not yet ended state censorship.

The Indian economy has not performed as spectacularly as the Chinese economy
Whether that difference can be put down to the fact that economic growth in China has had the backing of an authoritarian government is not entirely clear.

Equally, has the slightly less sparkling performance of the Indian economy anything to do with the fact that India is a democracy and broadly respects human rights?

Question 18

Political corruption

Answer 18

When the term ‘political corruption’ is mentioned, most of us think in terms of election rigging, but it can assume other forms:
Allowing private interests to dictate government policy.
Taking decisions that benefit those who are funding the politicians.
Diverting foreign aid and scarce resources into the private pockets of politicians.

All these and other malpractices result in corrupt politicians who can all too easily steer a country away from good government.
Such a movement is often accompanied by a serious threat to human rights.
Unfortunately, there are rather too many countries suffering from political corruption.
We have already taken a look at North Korea (page 194).
Myanmar and Zimbabwe have the same CPI score and have been ranked equally by Transparency International as the eighteenth most corrupt countries in the world. But their case histories are very different.

Question 19

Skills focus: Indices of corruption

Answer 19

Transparency International is a global organisation with one vision, namely to rid the world of corruption.

It has a presence in more than 100 countries.
Working with governments, businesses and citizens, its mission is to stop the abuse of power, bribery and secret deals.

It was set up in the 1990s and, since 1995, has produced an annual Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), which scores each country on how corrupt its public sector is seen to be.

The methodology used to arrive at this score is not too transparent however, other than that it is determined by expert assessments and opinion surveys.

The scaling used is rather perverse: the higher the index, the lower the level of corruption.

It is hardly surprising that there are so few reliable measures of corruption.

By its very nature, corruption prefers to remain hidden from public scrutiny and mostly does so successfully.

Question 20

Two cases of corruption: Myanmar and Zimbabwe
Myanmar:

Answer 20

For more than 40 years Myanmar has been ruled by an unelected military junta (a group of military officers who rule a country after seizing power).

Political violence and systematic repression of democratic opposition have been rife.

The country’s political and economic environment has continued to deteriorate.

Myanmar faces major challenges of endemic corruption.

Little is known of the specific forms and patterns of corruption in the country, but the scale of the informal and illicit economy suggests strong links between the ruling elite (the military junta) and organised crime activities, such as drugs, human trafficking and illegal logging.

In 2011 a nominally civilian government was introduced in response to international pressure and growing civilian demand for democratic government.

In 2015, the first reasonably fair general election for over 50 years was held.

The results offer the country some hope.
Aung San Suu Kyi’s National League for Democracy won a landslide victory and now has control of parliament.

However, the military-drafted constitution (2011) guarantees that unelected military representatives take up 25 per cent of the seats in parliament.
They also have a veto over constitutional change.

The constitution was also written to debar the extremely popular Aung San Suu Kyi from becoming president on the grounds that her two children had a foreign (British) father

The world waits with great interest to see whether Myanmar will join the ranks of the world’s democracies.
The challenge facing the country is immense.

Question 21

Two cases of corruption: Myanmar and Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe:

Answer 21

Myanmar has never enjoyed much economic prosperity.

The same cannot be said of Zimbabwe.
During its time as a British colony (1880-1980) it became one of the most prosperous parts of Africa.

This was thanks to productive agriculture, a profitable mining industry and a strong manufacturing sector, including iron and steel.

Robert Mugabe came to office in 1980, first as prime minister and then as president.

He and his associates continue to control the country thanks to questionable elections, corruption and a firm denial of human rights, particularly to the remaining white population.

Land reforms undertaken in the name of redistributing land to the black population from the former colonial white settlers have had two outcomes: the best land has ended up in the hands of Mugabe’s cronies, and the remainder has been badly farmed.

The scale of misrule and corruption has been such that it has brought the country to the brink of bankruptcy.

Per capita GDP stands at just over US$1000.
This means that there are now only 22 poorer countries in the world.

Now aged over 90, there is much speculation about what will happen to Zimbabwe after Mugabe has gone.

The chances of an end to political corruption and anti-white discrimination, and the advent of democratic government and economic prosperity, seem very remote.
Is Zimbabwe beyond recovery?

Question 22

Land reform:

Answer 22

Most often this involves the redistribution of property and agricultural land as result of government-initiated or government-backed actions.

Question 23

Discrimination based on gender and ethnicity
Gender:

Answer 23

At a global level, countries may be differentiated on the basis of the Gender Inequality Index (GII).

However, gender inequality will normally not vary very much within most countries.
This is because gender equality is usually determined by either government policy or law. All are expected to conform.

elements of gender discrimination persist in the UK, although the country has clearly been moving in the right direction.

Despite legislation, more needs to be done in terms of ensuring equal pay. But does gender discrimination vary within the UK, say on a regional basis?
Sadly, there are no official statistics to shed light on this issue

Question 24

Discrimination based on gender and ethnicity
Ethnicity:

Answer 24

Large parts of the world were under colonial rule in the first half of the twentieth century.

Most colonial powers were European, with the UK assembling the most extensive colonial empire of all.

Africa was probably the continent most fragmented by colonial rule, having been divided up by at least five European powers.

After the Second World War came the era of de-colonisation and independence.

Sadly, in many cases, independence brought internal conflict and division rather than what had been hoped for - freedom and prosperity.

Question 25

There were three main reasonsfor ethnic discrimination

Answer 25

Although various forms of government had been set up in the colonies, indigenous people had been largely excluded from its administration.
The result was that, when independence came, they had little or no experience of how to run a country, so independence often led to chaos.

This chaos meant that opportunist insurgent groups were able to vie for political control.
Much violence ensued.

Perhaps most important of all, the colonial borders did not recognise or realise the importance of traditional ethnic and religious borders.
The colonial boundaries often cut across these deeply-engrained lines.
One supposes that the colonial powers were arrogant in thinking that colonial rule would soon neutralise any differences between traditional groupings.
They could not have been more wrong.

Question 26

Human rights, health and education

Answer 26

There is plenty of evidence to suggest a broad correlation between human rights on the one hand and access to health and education on the other.
Indeed, the UDHR has decreed such access to be one of the most basic human rights.
The relationship probably also works in the other direction, namely that education at least should lead to a greater respect for other human rights.
But does everyone want access to education and healthcare?

Question 27

The growing demand for equality:

Answer 27

In many countries the struggles of women and ethnic minorities for equality have been long and persistent.
The pace of progress varies from country to country: in some the goal has been achieved, but in others success is still a long way off.

Question 28

Rwanda - worst examples of the costs of ignoring deep-rooted tribal divisions

Answer 28

Rwanda became a German colony in 1884 as part of German East Africa.

Following Germany’s defeat in the First World War (1914-18) it became a mandated territory under Belgian control.

All the native people of Rwanda were believed to be drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda, so the Germans thought there was nothing wrong with its boundaries when they took it over.

But what was not understood at the time was the existence of three distinct sub-groups within the Banyarwanda: Hutu (84 per cent of the population), Tutsi (fifteen per cent) and Taw (one per cent).

During pre-European times, Rwanda had been a unified state largely controlled by the minority Tutsi.

The Hutu were treated as second-class citizens by the dominant Tutsi.

Before and since independence in 1962, the Hutu have struggled for supremacy.
They were keen to convert their superiority in numbers into power.

After 30 years of tension, matters came to a head in April 1994 when the Hutu decided to literally eliminate the Tutsi.

Many Tutsi fled in terror to neighbouring countries but, within 100 days, around 800,000 of them were massacred.

The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) - a rebel group composed mainly of Tutsi refugees based in neighbouring Uganda - invaded the country and regained control by July, whereupon 2 million Hutu fled the country.

Today some stability has returned to Rwanda and the economy has recovered.
It would be wrong to say that relations between the Hutu and Tutsi have healed.

There is some irony in the present situation, however: while ethnic discrimination continues between Hutu and Tutsi, the country has one of the best gender equality records in the world.

Question 29

The indigenous populations of the Americas:

Answer 29

There are an estimated 370 million indigenous people living in more than 70 countries.

They account for about five per cent of the world’s population.

Around 46 million of them live in the Americas, with 40 million in Latin America where they account for thirteen per cent of the total population.

In the USA, the figure is just under two per cent of the population, while in Canada it is just over four per cent.

These indigenous peoples represent a rich diversity of cultures, religions, traditions and languages.
They are a significant part of the world’s biological diversity.
Many are also stewards of the Earth’s biological resources.

Yet, these groups continue to face serious discrimination and are among the world’s most marginalised peoples
Indigenous communities and their environments are increasingly under threat from mining, oil extraction, dam and road building, logging and agro-industrial projects.

They are being driven off their homelands and are ending up in towns and cities.
They are, as it were, paying the costs of development yet enjoying none of the benefits.

In short, indigenous people in the Americas, as elsewhere in the world, are poorer and less educated, are more likely to commit suicide, and are generally in worse health than the rest of the population.

The plight of indigenous peoples is perhaps best summed up by an extract from a UN report: ‘Children born into indigenous families often live in remote areas where governments do not invest in basic social services.
Consequently [they) have limited or no access to healthcare, quality education, justice and participation.
They are [even] at particular risk of not being registered at birth and of being denied identity documents.’

What, then, do these people really want? One suspects that, if asked, most would say: ‘Leave us alone and respect our human right to continue with our traditional way of life.

But what about education and healthcare?
Their answer could well be: ‘What better education could you want than learning every day how to live with the natural environment.

And why are you now harvesting our traditional medicinal plants?’
The fact is that not everyone wishes to live in the information age and in the material comfort so prized by the global majority today.

It is the duty of that majority to respect the human rights and lands of these very small minorities.

Question 30

The place of women in Afghanistan:

Answer 30

Afghanistan has undergone immense changes in the last 40 years, but not necessarily for the good.

During that time it has been occupied by Soviet troops and an international force led by the USA.

In between, it has been ruled by various militant groups and the highly oppressive Taliban.

As a consequence, women’s rights have experienced fluctuating fortunes.

Prior to the Soviet invasion in 1979, women’s rights in Afghanistan had made some progress.

They were first given the vote in 1919 (only a year after women in the UK).
In the 1950s, purdah (gender separation) was abolished.
In the following decade, a new constitution gave women equality in a number of important aspects of life, including being able to stand in elections at all levels.

During the 1980s and 1990s, and particularly under Taliban rule, the rights of women in Afghanistan were gradually withdrawn.
The Taliban enforced their version of Sharia law. Women and girls were banned from:
* going to school or studying
* working
* leaving the house without a male chaperone
* accessing healthcare delivered by men (with women showing their skin in public forbidden from working, healthcare was therefore virtually inaccessible)
* being involved in politics or speaking publicly.

These and other restrictions made Afghan women essentially prisoners in their homes.

If a woman left her home accompanied by a male relative, she would have to wear a burqa (a full body veil).

The punishment for any transgression was, to say the least, brutal and inhumane.

In 2001 a military coalition led by the USA entered the country.

Indeed, the plight of women was one of the justifications for the military intervention.

The Taliban was ousted and gradually women’s rights were restored.

However, with the gradual withdrawal of the troops, the Taliban and other insurgent groups now control some parts of the country.

Today, women are once again routinely discriminated against, abused and persecuted
Once again, equality seems a very distant dream for Afghan women.

Question 31

A mixed picture in Bolivia:

Answer 31

With a population of about 9 million and 35 different ethnic groups, Bolivia is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Latin America.

Over 60 per cent of the population is classified as indigenous while 30 per cent are mestizo (of mixed European and Amerindian descent).

Since the early 1990s there has been a strong move to recognise indigenous identity and culture, as well as the rights of these people.

Attempts have been made to involve indigenous people in national policy making.
While progress has been made culturally, socially and politically, the indigenous people remain marginalised in economic terms.
Most continue to live in extreme poverty.

President Morales, from an indigenous tribe himself, is recognised as a champion of indigenous rights and the environment

However, he is increasingly criticised for failing to deliver on the reduction of poverty among indigenous people, as distinct from the mestizo.

The challenge here is that, despite the sale of primary products, Bolivia is still the poorest country in South America.
Per capita GDP stands at only US$3150.

The record with respect to gender equality is worse.
For example, gender violence causes more death and disability among women aged 15 to 44 than do cancer, malaria, traffic accidents or war.
Around 50 per cent of Bolivian women from a variety of backgrounds have admitted to having been subject to physical abuse in their lifetime

Bolivia also has the highest rate of maternal mortality in South America.
Women have little access to services such as cancer screening and sexual health education.
In short, women still play a subordinate role in Bolivian society.
This, combined with their lack of education, means that they do not have a voice to call for their human rights.
Some ask, why does President Morales not take up this cause?

Afghanistan exemplifies discrimination on the basis of gender.
In Bolivia the need is for more equality for both indigenous groups and women.
Australia stands as a shining example of a progressive society in which good levels of equality have been achieved both for women and most ethnic groups

Question 32

Progress in Australia:

Answer 32

It is remarkable to note that, up to the Second World War, Australia pursued a so-called whites only immigration policy.

Its main aim was to prevent Chinese miners and Pacific Island labourers from entering the country.
The policy was slightly misnamed, however; while it favoured people from English-speaking countries, it discriminated against those from Southern and Eastern Europe.

The policy was gradually dropped after the Second World War.
While immigration is still carefully controlled, today Australia has become one of the world’s most multicultural countries.

Entry to Australia has been largely governed by its need for specific skills in its labour force.

Its citizens come from literally around the world.
More than 40 per cent of Australians now have national origins other than British or Irish, while just over two per cent are indigenous peoples.

Australia is widely recognised as having one of the best records relating to human rights.
There is little discrimination, perhaps because of its rich mix of ethnic groups

However, there are currently three areas of concern:
The treatment of asylum seekers and refugees, particularly preventing them from entering the country and processing their claims offshore
The need to do more to protect the rights of disabled people

Question 33

The long-running issue of the treatment of the Aboriginal people:

Answer 33

With regard to the last of these, there is the feeling that Australian society should be more inclusive towards indigenous people.

As we saw in Chapter 10 (page 184), it seems that the plight of the Aboriginal people is not responding to the relatively high levels of expenditure earmarked for their education and healthcare.

Is it possible that the Aboriginals feel, like their counterparts in the Americas, that they do not wish to be included?
Would they rather be left alone and allowed to follow their traditional lifestyles? If this is their wish, can Australia deliver it?

In conclusion, it should have become evident that there are variations in human rights within countries, and that the degree of variation may reflect different levels of social development.

All people may be equal, but they are not so when it comes to wealth, freedom and opportunity.

This is because there are other factors at work, such as the type of government, the distribution of political power and deeply rooted cultural traditions.

Question 34

The nature of geopolitical intervention

Answer 34

The focus in geopolitics is on political power in relation to geographic space.

Geopolitical interventions are the exercise of a country’s power in order to influence the course of events outside its borders.

For most countries, geopolitical interventions are very much the nuts and bolts of foreign policy.

It should also be made clear from the start that the sort of political power we will be talking about is rooted in economic strength.

So, the broad scenario to be investigated is one where the most powerful countries (the superpowers) seek to assist, mould or control less-powerful countries.

Question 35

Interventions and motives
The motives behind geopolitical interventions are many; they vary from country to country and between the different international organisations.

Possible motives include:

Answer 35

humanitarian:
Offering development aid to the poorest and least-developed countries.
Protecting human rights.
Encouraging education and healthcare.

mutual benefit:
Strengthening security and stability.
Promoting international trade and protecting trade routes.
Accessing resources.
Encouraging inward investment.

self-seeking:
Providing military support.
Increasing global or regional influence.

Question 36

These and other possible motives are delivered through three different mechanisms:

Answer 36

development aid
economic support
military power.

Question 37

Development aid:

Answer 37

Development aid has two main delivery routes: bilateral and multilateral.

bilateral aid allows a donor country to pursue its own agenda and to target aid at preferred countries and objectives.
With multilateral aid, in theory, the donor country has virtually no control.

Except that powerful countries do control the UN and World Bank, and so influence their policies and development agenda.
Much of the financial aid given by developed countries today is recorded by the OECD under the heading of Official Development Assistance (ODA).
Most of this money is bilateral aid, so the donor country has some say as to how the money is spent by the receiver country.

it should be the quality of aid that counts rather than simply its quantity.
ODA is usually multi-targeted.
The targets are made fairly transparent and they often involve promoting respect for human rights.

But there are others, such as confronting poverty, terrorism, HIV/AIDS, poor governance and corruption.
All have an impact on human development.

There are different forms of aid but much is in the form of loans.

Unfortunately for the borrowing country, loans attract interest and, ultimately, loans have to be repaid.
It is all too easy for receiver countries to enter a downward spiral of increasing debt.

More acceptable to receiver countries is what is known as technical assistance.
This involves the transfer of expertise, technology and education.
It is thought that this can contribute more to human development than capital loans.
Certainly, technical assistance is more effective in supporting ‘bottom-up’ approaches to development.

In this day and age, it is ‘cool’ to be cynical and suspicious, and aid has not escaped this type of scrutiny.

There are those who view it as being undertaken for ulterior and possibly subversive reasons, but might it not be that philanthropy and caring for humanity still exist in some parts of world?

Question 38

Bilateral aid:

Answer 38

Aid that is delivered on a one-to-one basis between a donor and a recipient country

Question 39

Multilateral aid:

Answer 39

Aid (usually financial, sometimes technical) given by donor countries to international aid organisations such as the World Bank or Oxfam.
These organisations distribute the aid to what they deem to be deserving causes.

Question 40

Official Development Assistance (ODA):

Answer 40

A term used by the OECD to measure aid. It is widely used as an indicator of flows of international aid.

Question 41

Flows

Answer 41

transfers of resources, either in cash or in the form of commodities or services.