physics and maths tutors - health and human Flashcards
Development is…
the idea of what 21st Century life should consist of - essentials (such as access to clean water and electricity), access to services and opportunities.
Development has various impacts and forms which are traditionally measured through economic and social factors
GDP and GDP per capita
A measure of wealth and mean wealth through income.
A high GDP per capita could represent a high-earning population and productive workforce, but GDP per capita could be skewed by very rich minorities, even if the majority of the population earn very little.
Life Expectancy
Measuring lifestyles and health. Life expectancy is an estimate of how long a person will live, made when they’re born, based on predicted advances, current services and the risk of diseases.
Literacy Rate
Quality of education which correlates to economic output.
A well-educated workforce tend to earn higher wages.
Literacy rates can also impact their personal lives
Infant Mortality Rate
Quality of healthcare and attitudes towards children.
Infant mortality is important since infants are some of the most vulnerable people of society, so are more likely to catch disease and infection or suffer from malnutrition.
Complex indices
(measures more than one factor) are becoming more widely used to measure development:
Happy Planet Index
KOF Index of Globalisation -
World Happiness Index
Happy Planet Index
Links life expectancy, wellbeing and equality with the impact of ecological footprint. It does not feature an economic component like most measures do.
KOF Index of Globalisation
Measures the strength of links between countries.
Uses economic, social and political criteria.
Despite not being a direct measure of development, globalisation closely links to a country’s development; nations that can prioritise globalisation tend to have good infrastructure, education for their workers’ families and economic funds available.
World Happiness Index
Measures alternative ideas like social support, generosity & corruption.
This is a qualitative measure, based on how the population feels regarding the transparency of their government.
The validity of the World Happiness Index could be argued, since opinions can largely be influenced by the media.
Top 5 Countries on HDI
Norway - 0.953
Switzerland - 0.944
Australia - 0.939
Ireland - 0.938
Germany - 0.936
Bottom 5 Countries on HDI
Niger
Central African Republic
South Sudan
Chad
Burundi
Reasons for trends in top 5 on HDI:
These nations have large economies and advancing technology (quaternary) industries, resulting in a high GDP per capita.
● Cities and towns are well structured, with strong infrastructure and transport links, excellent supplies of clean water, electricity and food to households.
● Most of these nations have free education systems, with opportunities to progress onto further education (universities) or into employment & apprenticeships.
Top 5 Countries on HPI
Costa Rica - 44.7
Mexico - 40.7
Colombia
Vanuatu
Vietnam
Bottom 5 Countries on HPI
Chad - 12.8
Luxembourg
Togo
Benin
Mongolia
Reasons for trends ON HPI:
high scoring countries on the Happy Planet Index (HPI) aren’t countries that score highly on the Human Development Index: Mexico (2nd), Costa Rica (1st), Thailand (9th), Vietnam (5th), Norway (12th). These trends in HPI are more complex to explain as each country largely varies in lifestyle, physical and human geography, and government styles.
Costa Rica
Abolished its army, instead spending its defense budget on education, health provisions and pensions. Government taxes all fossil fuel use, spending taxes on protecting its tropical rainforests. In 2015, 99% of its electricity was produced using renewable sources.
Norway
The highest scoring European country on the Happy Planet Index. Norway provides free education, public pensions and healthcare. There is low unemployment, and individuals work reasonable hours in a workplace with a strong sense of community.
However, Norway’s ecological footprint (consumption of resources, greenhouse gas emissions, protection of habitats and wildlife) is three times a sustainable footprint.
Top 5 Countries with 100% literacy rates
Andora Finland Luxembourg Poland Cuba
Bottom 5 Countries with literacy rates below 40%
Niger
Guinea South Sudan Benin Burkina Faso
Reasons for trends:
IN LIERACY RATES
the literacy rates trends are similar to the Human Development Index, since literacy rates are one of many measures that are considered by the HDI.
However, literacy rates may be unreliable, since the country itself measures it rather than an independent organisation.
Therefore a country may claim to have a higher literacy rate to avoid intervention and portray the country as successful.
Changing Definition of Development
Historically, there has been a strong link between development and a country’s wealth: the wealthier the country, the more they can afford to spend on infrastructure, education, health and so the more developed they are as a nation.
Rosling is a lead statistician who believes health and life expectancy directly correlates with a country’s development. He also tries to disgrace national governments about the inequalities in health and wellbeing across the world through GapMinder
Democracy
is a system of government based on the belief that the population has equal rights in deciding on how the country is run.
Each member of society who is eligible to vote gets to an elect representatives in government to govern on their behalf (not everyone is able to vote e.g. prisoners in the UK cannot vote).
Capitalism
is the economic system where industry is owned by private businesses and are run to make profit as opposed to being run by the state.
Within this system individuals earn wages based on their skills and hours worked. This can lead to great inequality of wealth across the population.
However, capitalist economies tend to be the most wealthy and successful across the globe: USA, UK, Germany
Do note, however, that even though a country may be described as capitalist it doesn’t mean every industry in it is privatised.
Royal Mail, until 2013, was state owned. Conversely, America has a private healthcare system whereas the NHS in the UK isn’t.
‘Western’ development
This westernised equal rights, democracy, capitalism - is seen by some as a successful in promoting development, since historically western countries have been (and continue to the present day) leading in economic and political significance.
However, some governments do not wish to adopt Western governance and values. They may go against their traditions, culture and way of life. why?
Western lifestyles are unsustainable, consuming large volumes of energy and water and creating a large proportion of greenhouse gas emissions.
- Many western countries have a large proportion of atheists or relaxed religious views. This can be reflected in laws: pro-abortion, divorce, mixed-gender schools. This can contradict other religions’ laws.
Therefore there are different models of governance:
Sharia Law - Model of Non-Secular Governance
There are some countries whose laws coincide with Islamic Sharia Law such as Saudi Arabia and Iran.
Here, law and religion are intertwined unlike in Western governments where secularisation has occurred. Sharia Law is particularly different from Western laws in its attitudes towards marriage, inheritance and women’s role in society.
The severity of interpretations of the law is disputed between various islamic countries, with Saudi Arabia having one of the strictest interpretations.
As a consequence of this they have some of the most controversial views on women’s treatment and rights. They also have the death penalty and there’s much debate about their human rights record.
Due to Saudi’s oil wealth they are still central figures within the world’s economy despite having a different form of government.
Bolivia - Model of Sustainability
Evo Morales (Bolivia’s president) is the leader of the ‘Movement towards Socialism’ party. He lead the creation of the 2009 Constitution focused on Law of Mother Earth:
● Mother Nature has rights, including to remain in equilibrium and unaltered by genetic modification.
● The government has a duty in protecting Mother Nature, through reducing resource consumption to advocating for the removal of all weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical, biological)
● Any damage previously against Mother Nature is the responsibility of our generation, and action should be taken to restore Mother Nature to equilibrium.
The Law of Mother Nature is an approach to put nature first in response to climate change and increasing pollution. This model required adaptation of Bolivia’s economic structure and rethinking the traditional model of development, which other countries are very hesitant to follow.
Communism
is the opposite to capitalism, prominent industries are state-owned which means competition between businesses is reduced.
As a consequence of less focus on profits, working conditions and pay should be more regulated and fairer.
However, in practice this isn’t always the case.
Historically, communist states haven’t been the most successful because
- Little economic growth, as there is no foreign direct investment or competition between companies.
- Wages were controlled by bureaucrats within government, so inequality still existed within wealth distribution and political voice.
- To maintain their one-party control, governments would restrict freedom of speech and human rights of their population.
However, many communist states have…
opened themselves to globalisation, trade and political cooperation. For example, China has the fastest growing economy in the last 30 years since opening up to FDI and relaxing its one-child policy.
However, China’s government still remains communist, which isn’t limiting China’s development and growth. This can also be seen in former USSR countries.
Authoritarian - Opposite Model to Democracy
(sometimes called totalitarian) are the opposite to democratic states, where decisions are made by the government or an individual alone.
Authoritarian states tend to have a bad record for development and human rights:
examples of authoritarian states
North Korea - persecution of anyone who questions the government without a fair trial, execution and torture of prisoners, locals cannot travel or communicate with foreign countries. Power is based on dictatorship, where Kim Jong Un inherited power after his Father as the Supreme Leader.
● Myanmar - persecution of Rohingya muslims, forcing them to migrate to flee torture or murder. Limited freedom of speech, with journalists imprisoned regularly for portraying the Myanmar government negatively.
Health in Developing Countries
Poor healthcare
Poor access to food
Poor access to clean water
Climate
Overcrowding
Poor healthcare
low levels of development mean countries don’t have money to invest in their healthcare.
Low education levels also mean they don’t have as many healthcare professionals as developed countries.
People may have to travel a long way to access healthcare (hospitals are mainly in big cities and may be poorly equipped).
They may not have the money to invest in things like vaccines.
Poor access to food
malnutrition leaves a population more open to diseases.
Poor access to clean water
Waterborne diseases such as cholera are prevalent in
developing countries.
Climate
many developing nations are situated within Africa and South Asia, which have tropical or semi-arid climates.
The warmth and moisture typical to theses climates promote tropical diseases such as Malaria, which needs specialist medical attention and nets to protect families from mosquito carriers (both are expensive).
Overcrowding
will also increase the spread of tropical illnesses, since contagion can pass easily between houses.
Overcrowding tends to occur in rapidly growing cities, where migrant settlers cannot afford or find space to live in; instead, informal settlements are established on the periphery of the city, with little infrastructure or planning.
In these shanty towns, poverty is high, services (doctors, schools, police) are extremely limited and houses are in close proximity to each other, allowing easy spread of fire and disease between households.
Diseases tend to affect the more vulnerable members of society (young children, elderly people, pregnant women) which means infant and maternal mortality rates tend to be high for developing nations.
Health in Developed World
● Most developed countries have excellent access to clean water, some countries rarely experiencing severe drought.
● Most populations have disposable income, which they can spend on improving their lifestyle and wellbeing: central heating, fitness/ gym membership, dishwashers. This will reduce their risk of illness and injury, promote healthy living and so extend their life expectancies.
examples of Health in Developed World
Japan has some of the longest living people, who would argue that the Japanese lifestyle and diet is one of the reasons for the longevity. European countries have become conscious of their diet, especially since most Europeans have office-based jobs so burn less calories.
● Developed nations have good healthcare access, life insurance and can afford advancing medical procedures and medicines.
However, developed nations do face some health issues:
➔ Lifestyle choices - including smoking, alcohol consumption and excessive saturated fats - limits developed nations life expectancy. Especially in America and the UK, obesity, type 2 diabetes and cancer affect a large proportion of the population and have added strain to their healthcare systems within the last few decades.
➔ Large cities such as London, Paris and New York are still susceptible to infectious disease, due to their large population density and high net movement of people daily. They are also prone to extreme weather events (long- period heatwaves, blizzards) that can heighten illness, isolate vulnerable individuals and put pressure on supplies of water and food.
Variations in Health within a Country
There is a ten year difference between life expectancies across the UK, with the highest life expectancies tending to be in the South.
Overall, life expectancy has improved for most boroughs in the UK due to:
- Changing Employment - As the UK develops, more people are employed in tertiary and quaternary industries. Therefore fewer people have physically demanding/ laborious jobs.
- Increasing wealth (on average!) - Households earn more on average, so can spend more on improving their lifestyles (gym membership, home-cooked foods) and so have higher life expectancies.
- Fewer risks to life in the last decade, due to the introduction of stricter health & safety regulations in the workplace, increased vaccination programmes and improved knowledge from a young age of the hazards of smoking, crossing roads, etc.
However, not all counties within the UK have the same health and life expectancies. This may be due to:
● Economic decline - often due to deindustrialisation - can lead to sudden unemployment and deprivation within a community. This is the case for previous mining towns and villages in Scotland and Wales which have some of the lowest life expectancies and highest deprivation levels, where coal mining was closed 30 years ago.
● Culture - Traditionally, men would finish their day at work with a drink at the pub in working men’s clubs. This culture of after work drinks can encourage a culture of excessive drinking and smoking.
● Densely populated cities are vulnerable to infectious diseases, especially due to the large net movement of people (tourists, business people, locals). This will limit life expectancy for cities such as London, Manchester and Birmingham.
Inequality within Populations
There can be inequality within a population’s health for a variety of reasons; health may vary between gender, ethnicity and socio-economic groups.
Health Inequality between Genders:
In some countries, inequality in the roles of gender will affect their health.
Historically, in England, the men of the family would mine and so would be exposed to particulates and risks (mine collapsing, gas explosions, accident with equipment).
Therefore, men would have a lower life expectancy due to their occupations.
This is the case for mineral mining across Africa, where men face respiratory diseases and chemical exposure whilst the mother raises the family or have less-hazardous occupation.
Health Inequality across Socio-Economic Groups:
Inequality between socio-economic groups has a large influence over an individual’s health. Often, low socio-economic groups are employed in the more riskier or physically demanding jobs, due to the health risk associated with the work.
Also, low socio-economic groups have some of the lowest education rates. This can affect their attitude to healthy lifestyles and achieving a higher-paid, lower-risk job.
Health Inequality across Ethnicity:
Indigenous and minority communities can have the lowest life expectancies within a country. This may be due to:
● Limited provisions in accordance with their culture - If indigenous communities rely on the natural environment for food and resources, some countries that limit their space and degrade the natural environment will damage the health of their indigenous communities (e.g. First Nations in Canada). Alternatively, if health services are run in a way that conflicts with a minorities’ religion (e.g. male doctors attending female patients), some individuals may avoid medical assistance.
● Physical isolation from services - Indigenous communities tend to live isolated in remote rural locations, so have a restricted access to health services, emergency services and medicine. This may mean severe diseases go undiagnosed, individuals face a large risk of infection if cut and often resort to herbal, traditional medicines rather than seeking outside medical attention.
Education and Development
Education improves aspects of a country’s problems and individual’s lifestyles. Education is one of the most influential factors in a country’s development, because different levels of education can have implications on many other factors:
Night School
Opportunity for education in vocational skills for individuals above 18
- For farmers, attending night school can educate them on new technologies or research into
new agricultural practice. This can pass down into an individual’s practice, which could improve productivity and crop yield (working with fallow periods, improving soil nutrition).
- Alternatively, individuals may wish to improve their qualifications to progress in their employment. This enables them to earn a higher wage and so they can afford to improve their quality of life.
- For parents on low income, by attending night school and improving their earnings, they may also affect their child’s education; instead of working to contribute to the family’s income (often in sub-standard jobs), children can attend primary education and so improve their future earnings and opportunities.
Primary Education
Standard education across the entire population, up to the age of 11. Teaches basic reading and writing abilities.
- Education can improve the health of a population. If someone can read, they can educate themselves on illnesses and be able to read medicine instructions. If they suffer from less illnesses, a family can continue to earn and so afford a better quality of life.
- Especially for girls, basic education can educate young people on contraception and health. In some countries, sexual health is biased when taught by parents, so a child follows their religion, decisions or traditions. Instead, primary education can provide an unbiased opinion which can help decisions made about family planning.
Further Education
Institutes such as colleges and universities that provide specialist education to 16 - 24 year olds (on average).
- A workforce will have to be skilled to attract high-income opportunities and technical TNCs. Locations can build a reputation for their skilled workforce, such as Bangalore’s growing IT industry where workers can speak multiple languages (especially English) to communicate with customers in call centres.
- The expansion of a country’s quaternary industry depends on a young population, educated in specialist technical subjects (such as Science, Engineering, Computer Science) at degree level.
- The knowledge gained by employees by working for quaternary TNCs may be passed down into households, where more of the population can repair & operate household appliances (e.g. washing machines) which can significantly improve quality of life.
Barriers to Education
However, education may not be available to all, even in the 21st Century.
Gender inequality is the predominant reason why many children don’t attend primary or secondary education.
Some interpret their religion or traditions to deem that girls aren’t capable or shouldn’t mix with boys.
Many families in developing countries prevent their children from attending school, instead sending them to work from an early age.
Other factors - epidemics, conflict or corrupt governments - can also restrict school attendance and the ability for schools to provide education.
There are several different approaches to improving social development.
● Welfare states can aim to provide a stable economy by providing for those unemployed or
disadvantaged. Only MEDC governments that can afford the balance can adopt this
approach.
● Totalitarian regimes focus on political and military enforcement. They aim to gain wealth
through streamlining services and being efficient as possible. This in turn will allow them to
create new job opportunities or infrastructure, indirectly helping the poor.
● IGO’s have been key since 1945 in the economic development and rebuilding across the
world after the effects of WWII. Organisations including the IMF, WTO & World Bank have the same aims and objectives that have made them successful in globalisation. However, some argue that IGOs have helped TNCs succeed, whilst widening the inequality between rich and poor.
The UN focus on protecting:
○ Human rights
○ Peace & serenity
○ Social advancement
The UN attempted to achieve these goals by creating the Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s).
MDGs
were put into place as a framework for development for emerging countries and for developed countries to provide assistance.
The framework ran from 2000 to 2015 and included goals such as:
○ Eradicate Poverty and Hunger
○ Universal Primary Education
○ Combat AIDs, HIV, Malaria and other diseases ○ Develop Global Partnerships for Development ○ Promote Gender Equality
○ Reduce Infant Mortality
○ Improve Maternal Health
○ Encourage Environmental Sustainability
The success of MDG’s is questionable. For example:
○ To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
- People living on $1.25 has halved
- 1 in 8 still remain in hunger and malnourishment
○ To achieve universal primary education
- Dramatic increase in enrollment and government encouragement
- 1⁄6 people are illiterate of which 2⁄3 are women
○ To ensure environmental sustainability
- 1.9 billion more people have access to drinking water
- Climate Change still remains a threat
The MDG’s were replaced by the…
Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 to encourage sustained social development.
There were more goals created (17 in total compared to 8 previously)
These targets aim to be reached by 2030 in expansion of the millenium development goals
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
● 30 articles set out in 1948 based on the rights of freedom & justice
● Has become the basis of International Law and countries are expected to adhere to all of
the articles, not just the ones that suit their society
● Authoritarian countries - which limit personal freedom - have limited human rights with the
existence of slavery (Mauritania) and female discrimination (Saudi Arabia)
● The UDHR has been criticised as favouring Western values and forcibly trying to change
other traditional cultures.
● Whilst developed countries now focus on social and political advancement, developing and emerging countries state that their economic development is more important, as developed countries had the chance to develop without restrictions.
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)
European Court of Human Rights developed ECHR as a follow on to the UDHR with similar aims to promote democracy, integration & freedom. 59 articles of which there are 47 signatories to promote unity in Europe
problem with ECHR
Some believe that it undermines national sovereignty with the European Court overruling the decision of the national courts, such as:
○ Deportation of political prisoners
○ Abortion laws
○ Surveillance & Intelligence decisions
However, international courts are good for individuals who believe their government should be held accountable to an action of decision.
With countries claiming it negatively impacts their sovereignty, several countries have drafted their own rights laws.
The UK suggested the British Bill of Rights in 2015
○ Would bring European law into UK constitution ○ Issues of terrorism plans would be resolved
○ An alternative when the UK leaves the EU
The Geneva Convention
The Geneva Convention is a set of international rules that apply in war situations that protect:
○ Civilians
○ Wounded armed forces
○ Prisoners of war
○ Shipwrecked navy forces
Ratified into international law by 196 states worldwide including Russia, Iraq & North Korea. The UN Security Council is ultimately the final decision maker on any complaints or incidents.
Countries have been known to break the Geneva Conventions by torturing and interrogating prisoners of war, including British soldiers interrogating PoW’s in Iraq in 2006.
Alternative Approaches to Human Rights
● Social progression in the West has created a focus on civil and political rights (the right to vote, freedom in speech & free movement)
● Attitudes in the east and communist countries still focus on the priority of economic and cultural rights (Beliefs in the right to work and ability to be housed)
● Different countries & populations will have different viewpoints depending on the progression of their country. Many developing/emerging countries can choose to prioritise economic stability as well as political security.
● Globalised communication is making detrimental attitudes to human rights more prevalent in the news which creates public pressure for governments to act and intervene.
● Authoritarian & Democratic countries have differing attitudes to the protection of human rights.
Corruption stifles development in many ways:
● Money lost to corruption could instead be spent on the provision of services and
infrastructure, which could:
○ Improve health and social well-being
○ Attract businesses, improving the economy and job opportunities ○ Improve safety and reduce levels of crime
● Corruption threatens human rights enforcement since politicians may exploit their people to remain in power or businesses bribe the government to exploit workers or the environment.
● Corruption severely impact the level of trust between the population and their government.
The UN established a convention against corruption
177 states signed.
It criminalises corruption and suggests international cooperation to hold those accountable.
Political corruption impacts the poorest in society, which creates greater inequality between the different levels of society.
Demands for Equality
The British Human Rights Report sets out priority countries to target to ensure equality and the following of human rights globally. Priority countries tend to be notorious for modern slavery, discrimination against women and homophobic attitudes, with little done to change these issues.
Developed countries have now progressed towards aiming for equal opportunities, recognition and pay for men and women after years of oppression of women. There are still industries were gender equality is difficult or there are few women employed (such as STEM) or male employees (such as nursing & midwifery).
Cultural shifts and changes in attitudes have created pressure on emerging societies to conform and create a more equal society for women:
Saudi Arabia have seen resistance to their enforcement of Sharia Law to restrict women - Public pressure lead to women being able to drive in 2016
○ Malala Yousafzai was shot by the taliban for speaking up about girls getting into education and continuing into employment - received the Nobel Peace Prize and now attends Oxford University to study PPE
○ Pakistan & US Aid - 2nd worst country in the world for gender equality - USAid dairy project trained 9,000 women - Increased girls enrollment in school with 5,200 scholarships for higher education
