Test A Flashcards
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Cultural encapsulation
A culturally encapsulated therapist is someone who tends to make inappropriate generalizations about a particular group of clients based on race or culture. More specifically, the therapist makes narrow assumptions about reality, is insensitive to cultural variations among individuals, disregards evidence disconfirming the superiority of the dominant culture, resorts to technique-oriented strategies and short-term solutions, and judges according to self-reference.
Factitious Disorder by Proxy
The deliberate feigning of medical symptoms in a dependent under the care of the individual with the disorder. The goal of the patient is to assume the sick role/have their dependent assume the sick role. In contrast to malingering, a diagnosis of Factitious Disorder can only be made in the absence of secondary gain. Munchausen’s is a variant of Factitious Disorder in which a patient presents with a variety of often life-threatening symptoms, history of multiple hospital visits, and pathological lying.
Criterion Contamination
Occurs when the criterion is subjectively scored, and the rater has knowledge of the employee’s predictor scores. When criterion contamination occurs, scores on the criterion are influenced by one’s knowledge of predictor scores. For examples, employees who do well in an assessment center are given higher quarterly appraisals than those who did poorly. Criterion contamination results in a spuriously high criterion-related validity coefficient.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
cluster of cells that functions as the circadian clock.
Substantia nigra
loss of cells has been implicated in Parkinson’s Disease
Reticular activating system (RAS)
filters incoming sensory information, and can activate a person into a state of alert wakefulness.
K Scale in MMPI-2
Measures guardedness or defensiveness. Also serves as a moderator variable. Used to adjust for defensiveness.
L Scale in MMPI-2
Measures a naïve attempt to present favorably
F Scale in MMPI-2
Measures infrequently endorsed items, and can be used to assess overall distress and pathology, attempts to fake bad, or random responding
VRIN and TRIN
specifically measure response inconsistency or random responding
Semantic Memory
memory that has to do with the meaning of words
Fee Splitting, APA Ethics Code
Not prohibited in all circumstances; allowed when it is based “on services provided” but prohibited base don referrals
Deception in research
The deception must be explained to participants as early as possible, preferably at the conclusion of their participation, but no later than at the conclusion of the research
Standard Error Formulae all have what in common?
All the standard error formulas express error in terms of standard deviation units
James-Lange Theory
Emotions result from perceiving bodily reactions or responses
Cannon-Bard Theory
Emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously. When an event is perceived, messages are sent at the same time to the hypothalamus, which arouses the body, and the limbic system, which causes the subjective experience of anxiety.
Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory
Emotion results from both internal information (hypothalamus and limbic system) and external information (the context). According to this theory you would be experiencing physiological arousal and would then look to the environment to help you label the emotion
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
A model or response to severe stress consisting of 3 stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Thalamus
sensory relay station for all senses except olfaction
James Marcia’s Identity Status Theory
There are 4 possible identity statuses for adolescents: 1) Foreclosure: commits him/herself to a goal without exploring alternatives, thus there is commitment with an absence of crisis; 2) Identity Achievement: the person has struggled and explored several options and developed goals and values. He or she has resolved the crisis, and made a commitment; 3) Moratorium: the person is actively struggling with exploring options and making a decision, but has not yet made a commitment. There is crisis and absence of commitment; 4) Identity Diffusion: The adolescent lacks direction and is not seriously considering options or trying to develop goals, thus, there is an absence of both crisis and commitment
Zeigarnik Effect
the phenomenon that people are more likely to remember uncompleted tasks than completed tasks
Standard error of the estimate
The Standard Error of the Estimate is a statistical figure that tells you how well your measured data relates to a theoretical straight line, the line of regression. With the standard error of estimate, you get a score that describes how good the regression line is. It is affected by 2 variables, the standard deviation of the criterion and criterion-related validity. The standard error of estimate has a direct relationship with the standard deviation, in that the larger the SD, the larger the error, while conversely, the smaller the SD, the smaller the error. When validity is high, there should be little error in prediction, and when validity is low, there should be a lot of error in prediction.
Managing children’s tantrums
Children often continue to tantrum because the attention they garner acts as reinforcement for them. A typical behavioral recommendation therefore is extinction, withholding the attention or other reinforcement. After extinction begins, an extinction burst (or response burst) typically occurs, during which the tantrums first intensify. Over time, however, the behavior decreases.
Hippocampus
The hippocampus, within the temporal lobes, is involved in the consolidation of long-term memory.
Medulla
part of the brainstem, and is involved in basic functions including respiration, cardiovascular activity, sleep, and consciousness.
Hypothalamus
the hypothalamus (along with the pituitary), constitutes the master endocrine gland, involved in temperature regulation, the sleep-wake cycle, general arousal, and movement.
Cerebellum
involved in movement and balance.
The halo effect
the tendency to be influenced by only one attribute when giving an overall rating of an individual. Halo effects can be positive, such as giving a positive overall rating because an individual is attractive, or negative, such as giving a negative overall rating because the individual dresses poorly. The following methods can help control for the halo effect: training the raters, a forced response format in which the rater is forced to choose between two equally desirable or undesirable attributes, and objective rating methods such as BARS, the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale.
Counterconditioning
In counterconditioning, a person learns a new response (e.g., pleasurable feelings) that is incompatible with a problematic response (e.g., performance anxiety). Sensate focus is a classical conditioning intervention that involves counterconditioning.
Gender effects of divorce
The studies on the effects of divorce have shown that women find divorce less emotionally problematic than men. For example, suicide rates are up to six times higher in men who are separated or divorced compared with men who are in a relationship.
Crowding
Men are generally more affected by crowding than women. Crowding tends to heighten overall arousal for both positive and negative emotions. Variables such as noise and temperature do influence the effects of crowding. Cultural variables also significantly influence crowding effects, in that culture helps determine the amount of personal space with which an individual feels comfortable.
ABAB design
An ABAB design is a type of single subject design that offers good control over history and maturation. The person is first measured over time during a baseline phase (A), then treatment is implemented and the person is once again measured repeatedly during the intervention (B). Treatment is then removed, and the person is measured at baseline again (A). Finally, treatment is implemented once again and the person is measured repeatedly (B). Since measurements of treatment effect are obtained at two different times, this design controls for the possibility that some of the treatment effect was confounded by a historical event. A key problem with an ABAB design is the possibility that the outcome measure may fail to return to baseline once the person has been exposed to the first part of treatment.
Wernicke’s Area
Receptive aphasia
Broca’s Area
Expressive aphasia
Kappa coefficient
The Kappa coefficient is a measure of interrater reliability. It is the degree of agreement between two or more raters when performance is subjectively scored. Reliability coefficients range from 0.0 to 1.0.
Construct validity
the degree to which a test is actually measuring the construct or trait it is attempting to measure (e.g., aggression). Both convergent and divergent validity are necessary to establish construct validity.
Protocol Analysis
involves subjects verbalizing their thought process as they perform a task. The goal is to better understand the person’s cognitive process, especially concerning problem-solving, although it is understood that the process of verbalizing may actually alter the cognitive process.
not guilty by reason of insanity
When someone is found not guilty by reason of insanity, the conclusion is that the person is not guilty because he was insane at the time the murder was committed. The inability to defend oneself in court proceedings is referred to as incompetency to stand trial.
treatment failure with addictive behaviors
The high failure rate in treating addictive behaviors stems from the fact that many addictions are very powerfully reinforcing. They are considered to be self-reinforcing in that the person does not depend on any external reinforcement.
Partial complex seizures
The temporal lobes are most commonly the originating site of complex partial seizures. Keep in mind, though, that such seizures can originate in any cortical region. Complex partial seizures are frequently preceded by an aura, and usually include purposeless behavior, lip smacking, unintelligible speech, and impaired consciousness.
Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology
has been widely adapted and used in parenting programs. STEP (Systematic Training in Effective Parenting) helps parents structure family life so that children experience natural and logical consequences of both good behavior and misbehavior. These programs also help parents to identify the goals of their children’s misbehavior (e.g., attention) so that they can help their children reach their goals in healthier, more adaptive ways.
T scores
The mean of T scores is 50, and the standard deviation is 10. A T score of 70 is two standard deviations above the mean, which corresponds to the 98th percentile rank. A z score of +1, which is one SD above the mean, is equivalent to a T score of 60 and a percentile rank of 84.
Preoperational Stage
The preoperational child (ages 2 to 7) is egocentric, relies on intuitive thought rather than logical or deductive reasoning, and increasingly uses symbolic activity. The ability to conserve does not appear until the stage of concrete operations (age 7 to 11).
Behavioral Contrast
The term behavioral contrast applies to the situation in which two behaviors are initially reinforced at equal levels and then one behavior stops being reinforced. What typically occurs is that the behavior that is no longer being reinforced decreases in frequency, while the behavior that continues to be reinforced increases in frequency. This concept is all about reinforcement, and of the theorists listed only Skinner theorizes about reinforcement.
work sample tests
To minimize discrimination, employment testing has moved from standardized tests in the direction of work sample tests. Work sample tests are excellent and fair predictors of work performance.
Sleep Waves
Alpha waves occur during periods of relaxed wakefulness, and are predominant just before falling asleep. Theta waves occur in early stage 1 sleep. Delta waves are slow waves that occur in stages 3 and 4, the deepest, non-dreaming part of sleep. REM sleep is dreaming sleep, during which there is rapid eye movement, increased respiration and heart rate, and relaxed muscle tone.
“Self-in-Relation” theory
According to the “Self-in-Relation” theory, women develop their sense of self through relationships with others. This theory is in opposition to male-oriented theories that emphasize autonomy and separation as pathways of development.
Response Cost
Response cost occurs when someone loses something (e.g. a token, privileges) for misbehavior. Since response cost involves taking something away, it is considered “negative,” and since it is designed to decrease a behavior, it is “punishment.”
Release of test data
According to the 2002 APA Ethics Code, test data should be released to the client, or to anyone designated by the client on an appropriate release. The psychologist may refuse to release the data only if he or she believes that doing so would cause “substantial harm, or the misuse or misinterpretation of test data.”
Caffeine Intoxication
Symptoms include flushed face, rambling speech, tachycardia, restlessness, and diuresis.
standard error of the measurement
The standard error of measurement (SEm) is a measure of how much measured test scores are spread around a “true” score. The standard error of measurement is a function of both the standard deviation of observed scores and the reliability of the test. When the test is perfectly reliable, the standard error of measurement equals 0. The range of the standard error of measurement is always from 0 to the standard deviation of the test (SDx).
Incremental Validity
There are 3 variables that affect incremental validity: base rate, selection ratio, and criterion-related validity. Taylor-Russell tables are used to evaluate incremental validity.
Base rate
the rate of successful hiring without using a test. A moderate base rate optimizes incremental validity.
Selection Ratio
The ratio of number of openings to number of applicants, and a low selection ratio optimizes incremental validity.
Criterion-related validity
The correlation between scores on the test and scores on some outcome measure of performance or productivity. The higher the criterion-related validity, the higher the incremental validity.
Kohlberg’s 3 Major Levels of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s 3 Major levels of moral development are each divided into 2 substages. The first major level is Preconventional Morality, with an emphasis on compliance with rules to avoid punishment and get rewards. The two substages are Punishment-Obedience and Instrumental Hedonism. The second major stage is Conventional Morality, with a focus on conforming to rules to get social approval. The two substages are Good Boy/Good Girl and Law and Order. The third level is Postconventional Morality with 2 substages of Morality of Contract, Rights and Laws, and Morality of Conscience.
Preadolescent sibling relationships
Research into sibling relationships in preadolescence indicates that these relationships are characterized by periods of both conflict and friendship. Conflict is theorized to be the result of less emotional inhibition with one’s sibling, which leads to more overt presentations of hostility. However, sibling preadolescent relationships also include periods of calm and friendship, which tend to occur in the presence of other family members while engaging in shared activities.
Sue & Sue’s model of racial/cultural identity
In the 1st stage, conformity, the minority person unequivocally prefers the dominant culture’s values over his or her own. During the second stage, dissonance, the minority person becomes increasingly aware that not all values of dominant culture are beneficial, and certain aspects of minority culture begin to have appeal. During the 3rd stage, resistance and immersion, the tides turn and the minority person tends to endorse minority held views, and reject the dominant values of society and culture. The 4th stage of introspection involves a deeper analysis of attitudes and feelings. During the final stage of integrative awareness, the person can appreciate unique aspects of his or her own culture as well as those of the dominant culture.
Ethics Code Standards vs. Principles
Standards are enforceable, principles are aspirational
Most Difficult Age of Separation from Mother
According to the psychoanalytic developmental theorist Margaret Mahler, the first month constitutes an autistic phase (a speculation which has not, incidentally, been supported by further research), and months 2-4 constitute the symbiotic phase. The process of separation-individuation then begins at around 4-5 months, with four subphases: a) differentiation (5-10 months) which includes stranger anxiety; b) practicing (10-16 months) which includes separation anxiety – and hence would be the age for greatest problems during a separation; c) rapprochement (16-24 months); and d) consolidation and object constancy (24 to 36 months).
Psychotherapy outcomes are most influenced by…
Psychotherapy outcome is most influenced by client factors, e.g., diagnoses, motivation for change, distress, etc.
Idiopathic
when the cause of a disease is unknown
Nocebo Effect
A nocebo effect is an ill effect caused by the suggestion or belief that something is harmful (e.g., expectation of unpleasant side effects leading to experiencing them despite receiving a sugar pill).
Maturation in adolescence
Overall, girls who mature earlier tend to be at a disadvantage compared to late- maturing peers, while boys who mature earlier tend to have an advantage over late-maturing peers.
concordance rate for identical twins with Bipolar Disorder
75% - 80%
stimulus generalization a.k.a. mediated generalization
The response of fear has remained the same, but there has been generalization from the stimulus that elicits fear. Thus, the phenomenon occurring here is stimulus generalization. Keep in mind that many phobias (e.g., agoraphobia) involve stimulus generalization.
Overextension vs. underextension
Early speech (about 18 months of age) is characterized by both underextension and overextension of word meanings. Overextension occurs when a word is used too broadly. Underextension occurs when a word is used too narrowly. For example, only one’s own dog is referred to as “doggie,” even though it is the appropriate word for all dogs.
Holophrasic speech
occurs between 12 and 18 months of age, makes use of a single word to express a complex idea. For example, “up” means “pick me up.”
Telegraphic speech
occurs between 18 and 24 months of age, is a form of two word, noun-verb sentences. For example, “give candy,” means “I’d like you to give me some candy.”
Adverse Impact
Adverse impact has occurred when the percentage of minorities hired is less than 4/5ths of the percentage of non-minorities hired. The easiest way to calculate this is to multiply the hiring rate for non-minorities by .8.
interdependence
In an interdependent task, group members need to work together in order to succeed, therefore rewarding group performance is most sensible. In a task that is low in interdependence, individual performance is more important; therefore individual rewards would be more useful.
Social loafing
occurs when people in a group work less hard than they would if they were being evaluated individually. The solution to social loafing is to make individuals more accountable for their contributions.
Conjunctive task
the group’s overall functioning is affected by the least effective member (e.g., the one who makes the most errors).
social facilitation
The presence of others on simple and familiar tasks (e.g., running a marathon) tends to enhance performance.
social inhibition
When the task is novel or complex, social inhibition occurs, and task performance is worsened in the presence of others
Parkinson’s Disease
Results from a loss of cells in the substantia nigra (as well as a decrease in dopamine). Characteristics of Parkinson’s Disease are resting tremors, akinesia (difficulty initiating movement), and shuffling gait.
Continuous Reinforcement
During acquisition of a new behavior, the highest rates of responding are associated with a schedule of continuous reinforcement, i.e., when behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. Problems associated with continuous schedules of reinforcement include satiation (people get so much reinforcement that they ‘feel full,’ so to speak), as well as the fact that these schedules are very susceptible to extinction (have a low resistance to extinction). Therefore, while people are trained on continuous reinforcement schedules, these schedules are typically ‘thinned,’ or gradually changed to intermittent schedules of reinforcement.
Brown vs. Board of Education (1954)
It was Professor Kenneth Clark of the City College of New York who created and performed innovative psychological tests using dolls. The Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation of children in public schools was a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. Testimony was presented based on innovative psychological tests using dolls to identify harm inflicted on the plaintiff children due to segregation.
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of memory for events occurring before the trauma (retro = backward)
Raven’s Progressive Matrices
Raven’s Progressive Matrices is thought to be one of the best non-verbal tests of Spearman’s “g” factor or intelligence. It consists of a series of abstract patterns with one piece missing. The test requires the person to pick out the missing piece using a multiple choice format. Spearman argued that intelligence is based on one factor, general intelligence, or “g,” and proposed that intelligence tests should measure intelligence without becoming clouded by specific abilities.
Reciprocity hypothesis
People tend to like others who like them
OCD prevalence
Has a lifetime prevalence of 2.5% and while males and females are overall affected equally, males have a modal age of onset that is earlier than females. Thus, in childhood and adolescence OCD is more common among males.
Barnum Effect
Occurs when someone finds personal meaning in a statement that could apply to anyone
Hawthorne Effect
Change in behavior that results from being observed. In the original Hawthorne study, experimenters were studying the physical and environment aspects of the workplace on productivity and found that worker productivity increased as a result of being observed.
Rosenthal Effect
Refers to the cues or clues transmitted by the experimenter to the subjects that results in subjects conforming to the experimenter’s expectations. In the original Rosenthal study, teachers in an inner-city school were given information about students who were expected to blossom, and they did.
Theme-interference problems
Problems that the consultee or supervisee are experiencing, that can affect patient’s progress. The type of consultation needed in this instance is consultee-centered case consultation.
Factors affecting bystanders
The fewer the number of bystanders, the more likely it is that a victim will get help. Other factors that affect the willingness of bystanders to help is whether they themselves have been victims of a violent crime and whether they have training in helping skills. “Bystander apathy” refers to the failure of bystanders to give help, e.g. Kitty Genovese.
Neo-Freudians
Focus on how social interactions and cultural factors influence and shape personality.
Withdrawal that causes hallucinations
The substances whose withdrawal syndromes involve hallucinations are alcohol, sedatives, hypnotics and anxiolytics, e.g. phenobarbital, a barbiturate. Withdrawal from these substances can be potentially fatal.
When to use median
The median is best when there are either some very extreme scores of a substantial percentage of maximum scores.
Idiosyncrasy credits
Idiosyncrasy credits refer to a group’s tolerance of an individual’s disregard for group norms. They can be earned by initially conforming to the group norms.
Yalom’s Group Stages
According to Yalom, the first stage of group therapy is characterized by hesitant participation, a search for meaning, and dependency. The 2nd stage includes conflicts, efforts at dominance, and rebellion against the leader. The 3rd stage is marked by the development of cohesiveness.
Adult Attachment Interview
Adults are asked to discuss their early attachment experiences in this assessment. Their responses are not analyzed by the content of their memories but rather by the manner in which these memories are discussed. In general, adults who receive the Adult Attachment Interview can be categorized as “secure/autonomous” (high coherence and consistency); “insecure/dismissing” (contradictions and lapses in memory); and “insecure/preoccupied” (confused, incoherent). After receiving one of these 3 labels, adults who discuss trauma and loss may be additionally categorized as “unresolved/disorganized” if they show momentary lapses of reasoning. In general, secure adults tend to have secure infants; dismissing adults tend to have avoidant infants; preoccupied adults tend to have ambivalent/anxious infants; and disorganized/unresolved adults tend to have disorganized infants.
Superstitious pairing
Believing a day is unlucky because something bad happened that day is a classical conditioning phenomenon, also called respondent conditioning.
Effect size for psychotherapy outcome research
0.85: meaning that treated people do about .85 of a standard deviation better than untreated individuals.
Social Comparison Theory
When standards are ambiguous and subjective, we compare ourselves to others (usually but not always those slightly above us).
Self-serving bias
People’s tendency to make dispositional attributions for their success and situational attributions for their failure.
Fundamental Attribution Error
Refers to people’s tendency to make dispositional attributions about others’ behavior.
Chi square
Chi square is a non-parametric test of differences used when data are nominal, or categorical. Although there are specific non-parametric tests for ordinate data (e.g. Mann-Whitney), the chi square can accommodate ordinal data. When there is more than one independent variable, the multiple sample chi square is run. One of the main assumptions of the chi square is independence of observations, thus, a chi square cannot be run when repeated observations are made.
Skinner
proponent of reinforcement
Correlation between IQ and academic performance
Is greater in elementary and high school, smaller in college and graduate school due to the concept of restriction of range– elementary and high schools include just about everyone, but college and graduate school restrict the range to include only the brighter students.
Shape of z-score distribution
Follows the shape of raw score distribution.
Vicarious Learning
Most closely associated with Bandura. Vicarious learning means that we can learn by watching and imitating others, and by anticipating future reinforcement. This notion is associated with Bandura’s model of observational learning, usually called Social Learning Theory or Social Cognitive Behaviorism.
Cerebral Palsy
Most commonly results from birth trauma in an otherwise healthy fetus.
X-linked diseases
Much more common in men than women. If a mother is a carrier and a the father is not color blind, each son has a 50% chance of being color blind. The daughters in this scenario can only be carriers and will not be color blind.
Griggs vs. Duke Power (1971)
The use of selection tests in industry has been influenced by the case of Griggs vs. the Duke Power Company, in which it was ruled that certain tests, such as the Wonderlic, were unfair to use in making decisions about hiring and promotion. Broad, general testing was faulted, and testing was required to measure the specific skills required by a particular job.
Capacity to conserve
The pre-operational child often lacks the cognitive capacity to conserve and centers on only one aspect of an object or situation at a time (e.g. a mommy can also be a sister). The strategy of focusing on the most salient aspect of a stimulus is terms centration. Centration is also one component involved in the inability to conserve: the pre-operational child fails to understand that a tall, thin glass may actually hold the same amount of liquid as a short but stout glass.
Structural Family Therapy
Follows the work of Minuchin. The key aspect of this treatment is focusing on the family’s hierarchy and working on problematic boundary issues.
Bowenian Family Systems Therapists
Address differentiation issues
Strategic Family Therapy
Prescribing the system (e.g. Haley)
Communications Family Therapists
a.k.a. the Mental Research Institute (MRI) groups, focus on stuff like double binds
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter involves in voluntary movement
Group polarization
When group members make more extreme decisions than they would have individually.
Ipsative data
Results from a forced-choice format and can only describe relative strengths or interests within a subject; cannot be used for comparisons across subjects.
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross’s 5 Stages
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross described a sequence of stages people typically go through when confronted with a life-threatening illness. They are 1) denial, 2) anger, 3) bargaining, 4) depression, and 5) acceptance or DABDA
Differential Reinforcement for Other Behaviors (DRO)
Combines operant extinction for an undesired behavior with reinforcement for more appropriate behavior.
Implicit Memory
Memories that don’t require conscious recollection, like driving a car
Explicit Memory
Involves the conscious recollection of facts and autobiographical events
Temporal lobe damage
Generally results in problems forming long-term memories. The individual with damage can remember things for a short period of time but cannot hold onto the information or consolidate it into long-term memory. left temporal lobe lesions result in impaired memory for verbal material, while right temporal lobe lesions result in impaired recall of non-verbal material such as music and drawings.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
States that the language people use actually shapes how they think.
Infant attachment
~60% of infants are securely attached by age 1
Paradoxical intention
Involves having clients do the opposite of what they might expect. An example of this would be prescribing the symptom.
Right Hemisphere
Plays important role in perceptual, visuospatial, artistic, musical, and intuitive activities.
Left hemisphere
Involved with language, as well as being rational, analytical, logical and abstract
Kohlberg’s Stages of Gender Identity
Kohlberg outlined 3 stages of the development of gender identity in children. In the 1st stage, gender labeling, children identify others as male or female base don physical appearances such as clothing or hair style and do not recognize that gender is stable over time. Thus, as physical characteristics change, gender changes. In the 2nd stage, gender stability, children recognize that gender is stable over time; however, there is still some confusion as to whether superficial appearance serves as a way of identifying gender. Finally, in the 3rd stage, gender consistency, children fully understand the nature of gender as permanent across time and situation. Gender confusion is a non-clinical term.
Gestalt Therapists
Believe that different parts of a dream reflect different aspects of the person. They work with dreams by having the patient become each element of the dream.
Fiedler’s LPC Theory
High LPCs do well in moderately favorable situations, while Low LPCs do best at the extremes. This is a curvilinear relationship. An “LPC” or “least preferred coworker” means the worker with whom the leader works least well. If the leader nevertheless rates these coworkers highly, the leader is considered to be a “high LPC” leader and to be relationship-oriented.
