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Biology 203 > Test 4 > Flashcards

Test 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

evolution

A

accumulation of genetic changes within a population over time

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2
Q

population

A

group of individuals of one species that live in the same geographic area at the same time

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3
Q

how to form different species

A

two populations diverge

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4
Q

species

A

group of similar organisms that are capable of interbreeding with one another

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5
Q

microevolution

A

see changes over a few generations

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6
Q

macroevolution

A

changes over long periods of time

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7
Q

aristotles view on evolution

A

visualized organisms as “moving toward a more perfect state”

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8
Q

leonardo da vincis view on evolution

A

correctly interpreted fossils as remains of animals that had existed in previous ages but had become extinct

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9
Q

jean baptiste de lamarck’s view on evolution

A

event that occur to you affect the traits of your offspring

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10
Q

what island did darwin see the different finches?

A

galapologos

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11
Q

artificial selection

A

we intervene and pick the traits instead of it occurring naturally

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12
Q

thomas malthus believed…

A

inherited variations favorable to survival tend to be preserved, while unfavorable ones are eliminated

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13
Q

adaptation

A

modification that improves chances of survival and reproductive success in a given environment

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14
Q

accumulations of modifications results in…

A

a new species

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15
Q

natural selection

A

better adapted organisms are more likely to survive and become the parents of the new generation

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16
Q

what was the situation between darwin and wallace?

A

darwin heard that wallace was about to publish on the same thing as him so he published “On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection” first while Wallace published “Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection” in 1970.

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17
Q

4 principles of natural selection

A
  1. variation- individuals in population show variation traits; some improve survival and reproductive success, some don’t
  2. overproduction-produce more offspring than are able to survive
  3. limits on population growth- organisms compete for limited resources, not all survive to reproduce
  4. differential reproductive success-individuals with most favorable combination of characteristics are more likely to survive
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18
Q

darwin came to these conclusions without _____

A

understanding heredity

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19
Q

genotype

A

what your genes say

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20
Q

phenotype

A

what you actually express

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21
Q

The modern synthesis

A

explains Darwins observation of variation among offspring in terms of mutation

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22
Q

population genetics

A

study of genetic variability within a population and of the evolutionary forces that act on it

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23
Q

allele

A

one of two or more alternate forms of a gene that occupy corresponding positions (loci) on homologous chromosomes

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24
Q

gene pool

A

all alleles for all the loci present in the population

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25
Q

genotype frequency

A

proportion of genotype in population

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26
Q

sum of all genotype frequencies

A

1.0

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27
Q

phenotype frequency

A

proportion of a particular phenotype in the population

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28
Q

if 2 alleles are dominant and recessive, the dominant phenotype is _____________

A

the sum of 2 genotypes

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29
Q

allele frequency

A

twice as much- proportion of a specific allele in a particular population

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30
Q

genetic equilibrium

A

nothing is happening; frequencies stay the same

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31
Q

change in genetic equilibrium

A

evolution occurs

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32
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

A

genotypes in a population of genetic equilibrium occur in the frequency: p^2 + 2pq + q^2=1

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33
Q

conditions of genetic equilibrium

A
  1. random mating
  2. no net mutations
  3. large population size
  4. no migration
  5. no natural selection
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34
Q

are the conditions of equilibrium always met?

A

no, never actually in equilibrium

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35
Q

nonrandom mating

A

(inbreeding) mating with any person more closely related to you than would be at random

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36
Q

inbreeding depression

A

inbred individuals have lower fitness than those not inbred

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37
Q

assortative mating

A

individuals select mates by their phenotypes

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38
Q

positive assortative mating

A

selection of mates with same phenotype

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39
Q

negative assortative mating

A

selection of mates with opposite phenotypes

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40
Q

mutation

A

any change in DNA
source of all new alleles
only mutation in reproductive cells inherited
only place you get new variation

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41
Q

gene flow

A

alleles moving from one population to another
more gene flow, the more people look the same
increases genetic variability in recipient population

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42
Q

natural selection

A

members of population that are better adapted to the environment have greater fitness

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43
Q

genetic drift

A

random evolutionary changes in small populations

  • results in changes in allele frequencies in a population.
  • decrease in genetic variation within a population, but increases genetic differences among different populations
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44
Q

sampling error

A

smaller population, more error

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45
Q

smaller populations driven by

A

drift

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46
Q

larger populations driven by

A

selection

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47
Q

bottlenecks

A

rapidly decrease due to disease, exploitation, and sudden environmental change

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48
Q

founder effect

A

few different individuals from a large population found a new colony
-only alleles in the new population will be those of the colonizers

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49
Q

what fixes bottlenecks and founders?

A

migration

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50
Q

metapopulation theory

A

available spaces to live

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51
Q

polymorphism

A

genetic variation among individuals in a population

-may or may not produce distinct phenotypes

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52
Q

SNPs

A

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms

Differ by one nucleotide

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53
Q

CNVs

A

Copy Number Variations

  • Genetic changes in which segments of DNA have been gained or lost
  • can involve DNA segments from 500 to 2 million base pairs
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54
Q

stabilizing selection

A

selects against phenotypic extremes
favors individuals with average phenotypes
narrows bell curve

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55
Q

directional selection

A

when an environment changes, phenotypes at one extreme of the normal distribution are favored
-occurs only if alleles favored under new circumstances are already present in the population

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56
Q

disruptive selection

A
  • extreme changes in the environment may favor 2 or more phenotypes
  • selects against average phenotype
  • occurs only if alleles favored under new circumstances are already present in the population
  • results in a divergence of distinct groups of individuals within a population
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57
Q

balanced polymorphism

A

a special type of genetic polymorphism in which 2 or more alleles persist in a population over many generations as a result of natural selection

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58
Q

mechanisms that preserve balanced polymorphism

A

heterozygote advantage and frequency dependent selection

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59
Q

heterozygote advantage

A

natural selection maintains alleles that are unfavorable in the homozygous state when the heterozygote Aa has a higher degree of fitness than either homozygote AA or aa

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60
Q

frequency dependent selection

A

a phenotype that has a greater selective value when rare than when common in the population
-often acts to maintain genetic variation in populations of predator or prey species

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61
Q

neutral variation

A

variation that does not alter the ability of an individual to survive and reproduce and is therefore not adaptive
-an allele that is neutral in one environment may be beneficial or harmful in another

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62
Q

we have a ________ with chimps

A

common ancestor

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63
Q

what did everything evolve from?

A

a common ancestor that was unicellular (3-4 billion years ago)

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64
Q

morphological species concept

A

classification of plants and other organisms into separate species based on their visible structural differences, such as feathers or number of flower parts

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65
Q

biological species concept

A

a species consists of one or more populations whole members interbred in nature to produce fertile offspring and do not breed with members of different species

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66
Q

short comings of biological species concept

A
  • applies only to sexually reproducing organisms
  • doesn’t apply to bacteria and asexual organisms or extinct ones which are classified by structural and biochemical characteristics
  • individuals assigned to different species sometimes successfully interbreed
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67
Q

phylogenetic species concept

A

classified due to different traits because of 2 separate evolutions

  • undergone evolution long enough for statistically significant differences
  • testable by comparing gene sequences between groups
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68
Q

short comings of phylogenetic species concept

A
  • requires thorough studies of DNA sequencing

- many subspecies would become separate species under this concept

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69
Q

reproductive isolating mechanisms

A

prevent interbreeding between 2 different species whose ranges overlap

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70
Q

prezygotic barriers

A

dont even get to the point of creating a zygote

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71
Q

temporal isolation

A

reproduce at different times of day, season, or year

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72
Q

habitat isolation

A

same area, but different habitats

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73
Q

behavioral isolation

A

how you behave affects selection

ensures they’re the same species

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74
Q

mechanical isolation

A

structural differences in reproductive organs prevent mating between species

75
Q

gametic isolation

A

molecular and chemical differences between species prevent fertilization after mating

76
Q

postzygotic barriers

A

when fertilization occurs between two closely related species mate
reproductive failure

77
Q

hybrid invariability

A

the embryo of an interspecific hybrid spontaneously aborts

78
Q

hybrid sterility

A

if an interspecific hybrid lives, it may not reproduce

79
Q

hybrid breakdown

A

more sterile as you go on

80
Q

speciation

A

the evolution of a new species

-population becomes reproductively isolated

81
Q

allopatric speciation

A

populations separated geographically and evolve by natural selection and/or genetic drift

82
Q

sympatric speciation

A

when reproductive isolating mechanisms evolve at the start of the speciation process

  • common in plants
  • 2 populations in same geographic region
83
Q

2 ways that sympatric speciation occurs

A
  1. ploidy-number of chromosome sets

2. change in ecology

84
Q

polyploidy

A

having more than 2 sets of chromosomes

-major factor in plant evolution

85
Q

2 kinds of polyploidy

A
  1. autopolyploid- contains multiple sets of chromosomes from a single species
  2. allopolyploid-contains multiple sets of chromosomes from 2 or more species
86
Q

what occurs with hybridization?

A

allopolyploid

  • produces a fertile interspecific hybrid because polyploidy provides the homologous chromosome pairs necessary for synapsis
  • reproduces with itself or with similar individual
87
Q

outcomes of allopolyploid

A
  1. new species cant compete & becomes extinct
  2. new species assumes new role & coexists with parental species
  3. has a greater fitness & replaces parents
88
Q

geographic variation

A

genetic differences among different populations within the same species

89
Q

cline

A

gradual change in a species through geographically separate populations as a result of an environmental gradient

90
Q

what explains the rapid appearance of many flowering plant species in the fossil record & their diversity?

A

allopolyploidy

91
Q

what leads to disruptive selection?

A

mutation spread by sexual reproduction

92
Q

sexual selection

A

choosing a mate based on color and some other characteristic

93
Q

hybrid zone

A

area of overlap between 2 recently diverged populations in which interbreeding takes place and hybrid offspring are common

94
Q

3 outcomes of hybrid zone

A
  1. reinforcement- hybrids less fit
  2. fusion- hybrids just as fit
  3. stability- hybrids more fit
95
Q

punctuated equilibrium

A

long periods of stasis interrupted by short periods of rapid selection

96
Q

phyletic gradualism

A

evolution proceeds continuously over long periods of time

97
Q

what explains evolutionary novelty (Large phenotypic changes such as the appearance of jointed limbs)?

A

macroevolution

98
Q

preadaptations

A

pre-existing structures

99
Q

evolutionary novelties

A

preadaptations that originally fulfilled one role but subsequently were adapted for a different one

100
Q

allometric growth

A

different parts of body grow at different rate

101
Q

regulatory genes

A

control hundreds of other genes during development

102
Q

paedomorphosis

A

retain juvenile features during adulthood

103
Q

adaptive radiation

A

evolutionary diversification of many related species from one or a few ancestral species in a relatively short period

104
Q

adaptive zone

A

new or vacant ecological niches that were not used by an ancestral organism

105
Q

extinction

A

when any line ends

eventual fate of all species

106
Q

chemical evolution

A

life developed from nonliving matter

107
Q

first life

A

unicellular bacteria
prokaryotes—> eukaryotes
developed in water

108
Q

sequence of evolution

A

soft-bodied, shelled, marine invertebrates, vertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals

109
Q

earth’s early atmosphere

A

not much oxygen—made of carbon dioxide, water vapor, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methane

110
Q

4 requirements for chemical evolution

A
  1. little or no free oxygen (oxygen oxidizes the organic molecules necessary for life)
  2. a source of energy (sun & no ozone layer)
  3. availability of chemical building blocks
  4. time
111
Q

formation of organic molecules models

A
  1. prebiotic soup hypothesis
    - mix building blocks and add energy
  2. iron-sulfur world hypothesis-organic precursors formed at cracks in the ocean’s floor
112
Q

protobionts

A

synthesized vesicles made by scientists with functional and structural attributes of living cells

  • divide in half after they’ve grown
  • maintain an internal chemical environment different from the external environment
  • some show beginnings of metabolism
  • highly organized
113
Q

microspheres

A

type of protobiont formed by adding water to abiotically formed polypeptides

  • some produce an electrical potential across their surfaces
  • can absorb materials from their surroundings (selective permeability) and respond to changes in osmotic pressure
114
Q

metabolism first hypothesis

A

chemical reactions occur between simple molecules enclosed within a boundary

  • an energy source must be coupled to the chemical reaction sequence
  • organization increases as pre-cells evolve
  • the pre-cell system must grow and reproduce
115
Q

RNA world hypothesis

A

RNA came first

  • simpler (single stranded)
  • code for protein
  • some types serve as enzymes (ribozymes)
  • self-replicate
116
Q

when did cells first exist?

A

no one knows exactly but mircofossils suggest 3.5 bya

117
Q

stromatolites

A

composed of many minute layers of prokaryotic cells

118
Q

describe first photosynthetic autotrophs

A

used light energy to split hydrogen-rich molecules, releasing sulfur in the process

119
Q

cyanobacteria

A

first photosynthetic autotrophs to obtain hydrogen electrons by splitting water
-need oxygen to produce mitochondria

120
Q

aerobes

A

respiratory pathway evolved that used oxygen to increase the amount of energy from food

121
Q

UV protection

A

ozone layer prevents sun’s ultraviolet radiation from reaching Earth’s surface
organisms could live closer to the water surface and eventually move onto land

122
Q

serial endosymbiosis

A

early eukaryotic cells were assemblages of formerly free-living prokaryotes

123
Q

chloroplasts

A

evolved from photosynthetic bacteria that lived inside larger heterotrophic cells

124
Q

what did mitochondria evolve from?

A

aerobic bacteria that lived inside larger anaerobic cells

125
Q

endosymbionts

A

live symbiotically inside host cell; could have survived and reproduced with host cell, forming a mutualistic relationship

126
Q

how many strata are there

A

5 layers

127
Q

archaean eon

A

life originated here

128
Q

Proterozoic eon

A

2.5-542 mya
prokaryotes
first eukaryotic cells appeared 2.2 bya

129
Q

ediacaran period

A

600 mya-542 mya
multicellular organisms
simple, soft invertebrates

130
Q

6 periods of paleozoic era

A

542 mya-251 mya

  1. cambrian
  2. ordovician
  3. silurian
  4. devonian
  5. carboniferous
  6. permian
131
Q

cambrian

A

evolution was rapid and sudden appearance of animal body plans (oxygen enrichment hypothesis)

132
Q

orduvician period

A

land covered by shallow seas and another burst of evolutionary diversification
-giant cephalopods, coral reefs, jawless fish, terrestrial plants

133
Q

silurian period

A

jaw fish and terrestrial plants
land arthopods (air breathing)
evolution of plants allowed animals to colonize on land

134
Q

devonian period

A

(age of fishes)
when tiktaalik lived
-placoderms, sharks, lobe-finned fish, and ray finned
-late devonian- amphibians, wingless insects, and all major plant groups

135
Q

carboniferous period

A
  • lots of oxygen because of forests
  • amphibians went through adaptive radiation and became dominant carnivores in terrestrial ecosystems
  • 2 lines of reptiles: lizards & permians and early mesozoic mammal-like ones
  • 2 groups of winged insects: cockroaches & dragonflies
136
Q

permian period

A

divergence between reptiles and mammals

therapsids- mammal-like reptiles that included the ancestor of mammals, originated in the permian to mesozoic era

137
Q

mass extinction

A

occurred at end of paleozoic era, between permian and triassic (251 mya)
more than 90% of marine species & 70% of vertebrates living on land became extinct
catastrophic

138
Q

mesozoic era

A
  • 251-66 mya
  • age of reptiles
  • 3 periods:
    1. triassic
    2. jurassic
    3. cretaceous
139
Q

triassic period

A

terrestrial groups: mammal-like therapsids (insectivores & herbivores
carnivorous thecodonts (ancestors of crocs, flying reptiles, dinos, and birds)
marine groups: plesiosaurs & ichthyosaurs
pterosaurs (flying reptiles) appeared & diversified

140
Q

jurassic and cretaceous periods

A

crocodiles, lizards, snakes, and birds appeared and dinos diversified dramatically

141
Q

2 groups of dinos

A
  1. saurischians- origin of birds; bipedal, fast, carnivores
    - others huge, quadrupedal herbivores
  2. omithischians- entirely herbivores; some with broad, birdlike beaks, others with great armor plates
142
Q

archaeopteryx

A

oldest known bird (150 mya)

teeth and long bony tail

143
Q

sihornis confuciusornis

A

earliest known bird with toothless beak

144
Q

what were the first feathers used for?

A

thermal insulation but then were modified for flight

145
Q

microraptor gui

A

had feathers on forelimbs, hindlimbs, and tail

146
Q

how much does archaeopteryx predate m. gui by?

A

25 million years

147
Q

what ended the cretaceous period?

A

change in climate over a long period
impact at chicxulub crater in Mexico
smoke and forest fires that lowered global temperatures

148
Q

cenozoic era

A

66 mya-present
flowering plant diversity
explosive radiation of birds adapted for different habitats

149
Q

pleistocene

A

ice age

150
Q

quatemary

A

present time

151
Q

when did mammals emerge?

A

paleocene epoch

152
Q

when did many modern families of mammals emerge?

A

during the oligolene epoch

153
Q

when did humans appear?

A

in Africa during Late Miocene and early Pliocene epochs

-homo appeared 2.5 mya

154
Q

paleoanthropology

A

study of human evolution

155
Q

what is the origin of primates?

A

came from small, shrew-like placental mammals that lived in trees and ate insects

156
Q

when did primates appear?

A

early ecocene (56 mya)

157
Q

kinds of primates?

A

lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans

158
Q

primate characteristics

A

opposable thumb
stereoscopic vision (overlapping vision fields)
relatively large brain for their size

159
Q

what type of primates are we?

A

anthropoids

160
Q

tarsiers

A

nocturnal primates found in rain forests of indonesia and philippines

161
Q

anthropoidea

A

arose in Africa or Asia during the middle ecocene epoch (45 mya)
oldest anthropoid fossils (eosimias) were small insecting eating arboreal primates, active in day
relatively larger brain

162
Q

new world monkeys

A
  • south and central america
  • arboreal and prehensile tails
  • marmosets, capuchins, howler monkeys, squirrel monkeys, and spider monkeys
163
Q

old world monkeys

A
  • africa, asia, and europe
  • some arboreal, none have prehensile tails
  • ground dwellers, quadrupedal
  • baboons, macaques, guenons, mangabeys, langurs, colobus
164
Q

hominoids

A

group composed of apes and hominins (humans)

-apes and old world monkeys diverged 25 mya-23 mya

165
Q

proconsul

A

fossil with hominoid features

166
Q

5 genera of hominoids

A
  1. gibbons (hylobates)
  2. orangutans (pongo)
  3. gorillas (gorilla)
  4. chimpanzees (pan)
  5. humans (homo)
167
Q

brachiate

A

swing from branch to branch (gibbons and orangutans)

168
Q

knuckle walking

A

chimps and gorillas

169
Q

what hemoglobin is identical to humans?

A

chimps and humans

170
Q

foramen magnum

A

hole for brainstem in skull

if its right under it, then they were bipedal

171
Q

differences between ape skeleton and human

A
  • no brow ridge
  • no protruding jaw
  • smaller k9s
  • alignment of toes
  • foramen magnum
172
Q

human skull

A
  • brain larger
  • smaller teeth
  • look like a baby primate
  • modern human skulls lack prominent subraorbital ridges
173
Q

orrorin

A

bipedal, early hominin

6 mya

174
Q

australopithecines

A

ardipithecus, australopithecus, and paranthropus
bipedal
hominin

175
Q

A. afarensis

A 
lucy
ancestor to lots of autralopithecines 
bipedal
3.2 million years old
found in ethiopia in 1974 by donald johanson
176
Q

what did the homo genus arise from?

A

australopithecines

177
Q

homo habils

A

used tools, larger brain

178
Q

homo ergaster

A

may be direct ancestor of humans (2-1.4 mya)

179
Q

homo erectus

A

larger brain
dead end
more sophisticated tools, clothing, fires, lived in shelters

180
Q

archaic humans

A

descendants of homo ergaster
same size as our brains
rich, varied cultures
oldest archaic human fossils discovered in Europe as Homo antecessor

181
Q

homo heidelbergensis

A

ancestors to homo sapians and neandertals

larger brain

182
Q

neandertals

A

overlap with homosapiens and died out
european
cared for sick and used tools
maybe a separate species (homo neanderthalensis)
short, sturdy builds, heavy supraorbital ridges and jaws, large front teeth, nasal cavities with triangle boney projectile rituals

183
Q

homo sapiens

A

modern humans

in africa about 195,000 years ago

184
Q

what led to bigger brains?

A

cooking food, which predigests it, making more calories

Biology 203 (3 decks)

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