Test 4 Flashcards
Development of intelligence tests
Galton and Cattell Binet Intelligence unitary? Army alpha and beta tests immigration, racism, and intelligence
Galton
individual differences interest started mental testing movement
all knowledge comes from sensory
invented correlation and regression
Cattell
Testing
used JND, motor tests to develop sensory measure
grad student evaluation the correlation between measures and beween each measure and GPA but NOT correlated with intelligence
Binet
evaluate intelligence of children. easy to difficult. age ranges: if 75% of children that age can do it
french government had compulsory education. What to do with students with intellectual difficulties? need to identify them. Binet on committee to identify children for sped. should use cognitive abilities
used empirical rather than theoretical approach
Binet and Simon Test, 1908
3 years: point to eyes, nose, and mouth. repeat 6 syllable senence. name objects in pictures
5 years: copy a square, compare the weight of 2 boxes. repeat 10 syllable sentence
11 years: criticize absurd sentence
William Stern
IQ concept: Mental age over chronological age
is intelligence unitary?
Charles Spearman
Factor analysis
1904 book
S (specific factors) + G (general factors)
Wechsler
said G can be broken down into 2 factors: verbal and performance
Army alpha
APA made intelligence test for war
1917 US joined war
for recruits who could read and write
superior intelligance could be considered for officer training
mentally challenged to not be in army
Start using right after developed but war ends and commanders didn’t see value and didn’t use
helped everyone know about psychology and intelligence tests
Terman
adapted Binet and Simon for US
made it easier to score
Robert Yerkes
testing WWI
APA president
testing recruitments
said mental age of southern or eastern Europe were 2 years mentally behind those from northern Europe
Army Beta
for recruits who couldn’t read and write
Scientific racism
connected to intelligence testing
economic boom at end of 19th century and immigrants came.
Henry Goddard
Henry Goddard
translated binet-simon into english and supervised testing of immigrants at Ellis island
analyses said that high proportions of Jewish, Italian, and Russians and said that mentally challenged
Culturally biased tests
- existing tests culturally biased
- environmental factors (like upbringing) can influence scores
Horace Bond
Psychs turned against intelligence is innate with Nazis
Rise of behaviorism because rejected nativist explanations
Horace Bond
noticed culturally biased tests
Eugenics Movement
Galton
scientific racism
selective breeding could improve intelligence of our species
White Supremacy Movement
Haeckel
scientific racism
warfare and government policy can eliminate inferior races
weed out inferior people
Social Darwinsim
Sumner
scientific racism
Government should help businessmen, not poor people
Anti-Immigration movement
Goddard
scientific racism
mental testing of immigrants, northern Europeans are only desirable immigrants
Gestalt
Whole is more than the sum of the parts Pattern, form, and configuration reaction to structuralism 1912 founders: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler Ernst Mach Phi Phenon Perceptual Organization Kurt Lewin
Ernst Mach
Gestalt
criticized atomist and behaviorism
physicist and philosopher
logical positivism: operational defintion
Phi Phenomenon
Max Wertheimer published paper on
Apparent motion: all movement in tv, cinema, and computers is illusory
stationary images are presented in rapid succession like flip book
apparent motion can’t be explained by kinesthetics
Perceptual organization
gestalt’s biggest contribution
figure is the object you are paying attention to
ground is the background (everything else)
partly under voluntary control
based theory on force fields: stimulus information interacts with force fields of brain. force fields are influenced by sensory info
Laws of Perceptual organization 5
- law of proximity: elements that are near to one another tend to be grouped together, they tend to be seen as a unit
- Law of similarity: elements that are similar to one another tend to be grouped together and seen as a unit
- Law of good continuation: elements that form a line or a curve tend to be grouped together and seen as a unit
- Law of closure: if a figure has a gap, we tend to close the gap and not notice it
- law of common fate (motion): elements that move together tend to be grouped together and seen as a unit. Camouflage: only works if animal doesn’t move
Modern view of gestalt
vision can be explained by info processing, stages. some gestalt applies (see slide)
subjective-behaviorists and cog psychs objected. RT, EEG
Kurt Lewin
social psychs and IO founder. also did gestalt work
motivation
Types of conflict with goals
Avoidance-Avoidance: 2 options, both unpleasant
Approach-Approach: choice between 2 that are both attractive
Approach-Avoidance: mixed feelings about both options, ambivalant (valances)
Freud
born in czech republix
medical school university of vienna
first 6 pubs on cocaine
case study Anna O
Anna O
Hysteria: psychosomatic illness in which emotional problem cause the patient to develop either multiple personalities or physical symptoms, wuch as paralysis of part of the body.
real name: Bertha von Pappenheim. He wasn’t physician
Psychoanalysis
founded 1895
freud and breuer’s book
- person suffers emotional trauma
- Memories are repressed
- The unconscious, negative emotions manifests themselves in somatic symptoms such as paralyzed arm
Therapy for hysteria
During hypnosis, the patient relieves trauma. Repressed emotions are freed and symptoms go away (Cartharis). Sometimes projects emotions and experiences from past relationships onto therapist (transference)
Seduction Error
Freud reported that nearly all of his patients claimed to have been sexually abused by their fathers. But then he decided that he was wrong and they were just fantasizing. However, doesn’t matter that weren’t abused, because even imagining it is traumatic and unconscious can’t tell the difference.
Mental architecture
id, ego, and superego
id: all motivation: hunger, thirst, sex, aggression. The libido is the energy that drives our behavior.
acting alone, the id only has 2 means by which to satisfy a need: 1. Reflex Action 2. Wish fulfillment (dreams)
Ego: serves as a mediator beween the id and physical world. Provides real fulfillment of needs
Superego: moral force that controls our behavior. Conscious. Newborn has no superego
Universal dream content
manifest: what you dream
Latent content: what it means, like death, parents, penis, vagina, birth
Defense mechanisms
used by unconscious to reduce anxiety
- Denial
- Projection
- Sublimation-diverting impulses from the id into socially acceptable behavior. sex drive
- Repression
- Rationalization
- Reaction formation
Psychosexual development
oral stage
anal stage
phallic stage
Oral stage
birth to one year
getting pleasure from sucking, chewing, and swallowing .
if soemthing goes wrong: excessive drinker, smoker, and kisser. oral incorporative personality
anal stage
ages 1-2.
phase 1: anal expuslive: bowel movements. gets pleasure. if something goes wrong: anal expulsive personality (messy, wastful, disorganized)
Phase 2: pleasure from withholding bowel movements. Anal retentive personality (well organized, neat, and perfectionist)
Phallic stage
3-5 years
penis or clitoris emerge as erogenous zone
boys develop an Oedipus complex, girls an Elektra complex, girl penis envy, attached to father bc he has one
latency stage
6-purberty: intense repression but eliminates sexual desire during these years
genital
puberty to adulthood. sexual desire becomes too strong to completely repress.
Evaluation of Freud-problems. 5
- low quality data
- Dogmatism
- Overemphasis on sex
- Therapy of limited value
- lack of falsifiability
Freud’s contributions
- Expanded psychology’s domain
- popularization of psychotherapy
- emphasis on unconscious processes
- emphasis on early development
- led to sexual reform
Clinical psych review
Alcmaeon: mental illness should be studied scientificially?
Hippocrates
Galen: medical topics, extended Hippocrates humours, personality theory. applied to mental illness
Jesus: mental illness causes by demons
Constantinus: paid scribes to put scriptures in book
Ibn Sina
Malleus Maleficarum
book to aid law in tracking down witches to execute
described how to identify: many signs were mental illness (hallucinations, seizures, depression, impotence, loss of sensory or motor abilities)
Philippus Parcelsus
bizarre behavior not witchcraft. shouldn’t execute them
rejected Hippocrates
External agents cause disease: virus, bacteria, fungus, parasite (Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur
used chemicals as medicine
Asylums
late middle ages
Mental illness reform movement
Philipe Pinel: released chains. contributed to diagnostic categories. Wanted to treat mentally ill like human beings. Safe and clean place to rest and possibly recover
William Tuke?
Dix
Medical model vs psych model
medical model: mental illness had an organic cause
psych model: caused by psychosocial factors (trauma, guilt, stress, anxiety)
freud was medical then psych
Neural, organic ->psychosis
psycho-social -> neurosis
Emil Kraepelin
student of Wundt
published diagnositic categorization system
led way for DSM
split psychosis into 2 illnesses: schizophrenia and bipolar
Drugs
1940s
made the return of the medical model
lithium first
diatethesis-stress model
medical and psych model compromise
vulnerability and then stresses make manifest
Lightner Witmer
student of Wundt
first psych clinic 1986: school children problems
clinical journal
WWII
after war
veterans admin realized that many needed psychiatric care
VA turn psychologists into therapists, rather than psychiatrists
Carl Rogers
First meaningful alternative to psychoanalysis
client centered
formal tests of efficacy
struggle for acceptance of clinical psych
scientist-practitioner: witmer
boulder model: APA 1949, endorsed scientist-practitioner model, earn Ph.D. based on original model
Vail Model: 1973, recognized Psy.D., like M.D.
Reflex
see slide
descartes
hydraulic theory, reflex
Swammerdam
disproved hydraulic theory
volume of muscle doesn’t change when activated
Robert Boyle
mind not necessary for reflexes. cut head off of snake, found that still reacted to touch.
Roberty Whytt
2 hypothesis for reflexes
- stimulus travels from skin through a nerve to the muscle, without passing through the central nervous system
- same but stimulus must pass through the spinal cord
second is correct
pupil reflex to bright light. pupil constricts so retina isn’t overstimulated. before ppl thought muscle was reacting directly to light. whytt found must pass through cns
Reflex arc
circuit for reflex going from stimulus to response
5 parts
sensory receptor, sensory nerve, CNS, motor nerve, muscle
Ivan Sechenov
all behavior is due to reflexes. everything is an automatic reaction to stimulus, either immediate or delayed
everything muscle reactions. all mechanical
don’t need psychs, just physiologists
threat to christianity, no soul
showed reflexes could be inhibited by pre-stimulation of the brain. all behavior result of summated excitatory and inhibitory processes in the brain
investigated Pavlov’s orienting reflex
Eduard Weber
discovered inhibition
Vagus nerve, electrically stimulates to trigger action potential. heart slowed down and beat with less force. nerve inhibited heart
Otto Lowei
discovered neurotransmitters
like Weber’s method
Pavlov
behaviorists embraced
stimulus generalization
extinction
discriminative conditioning: study perception in animals
recent additions:
contiguity: an association is formed if two stimuli occur at same place and time
contingency: association formed if one stimulus predicts another
new thinking and contingency
Blocking experiement: tone and air puffs, blinking, adds 2 conditioned stimuli at same time. if only light, doesnt blink. block out everything else because tone predicted
Pavlov also discovered orienting reflex, triggered by novel, salient or biologically relevant stimuli. orienting of eyes and ears. visceral arousal like pupil dilation, sweating. heart slows down
Sir Charles Sherrington
2 pathways side by side and each one influences the other one
antagonistic pairs of muscles. 2 muscles work in opposite way
behaviorism reflexes
- reflexes mechanical, fostered attitude that man is machine
- congruent with positivism-observable
- sechenoff, all behavior is reflexive
comparative psych
study of animals
contributed to psych
George Romanes-helped found comparative
Thorndike
George Romanes
if all living creatures are related, then the study of inteilligence in animals should help us understand the human mind
trace the evolution of the mind from single cell to apes
minds simpler, so should be easier to understand
animale research uses objective methods. no introspection
but Romanes used anecdotes instead of experimental
Lloyd Morgan
criticized Romanes
Canon:
Don’t interpret the behavior of an animal in terms of higher mental processes if it can be explained by low-level processes (parsimony), like dog learning to open gate (trial and error learning)
Thorndike
used lab experiments with animals
William James’s student
creates maze for chicks, chick finds way out. Successful behavior creates positive memory that stays
Cat: box with opeant (instrumental conditiong)= Puzzle box
insight vs trial and error learning. Not intelligence or insight, just trial and error. This was his dissertation
First psych to use rewards and punishments in experiments
Thorndike’s conclusions from cat-5
- connectionism (Stimulus-response psych): sensations form connections with motor responses (not just with other sensations as associationists had assumped)
- Law of effect (reinforcement): responses that are followed by a feeling of satisfaction will become more strongly association with the stimulus situation
- Law of exercise: the more often an S-R connection is repeated, the greater its strength will be
- Learning is incremental, gradual, not all or none
- Learning is automatic, no conscious thinking required
Kohler’s criticism of thorndike
Cat can’t see outside of box, how can he be expected to think it through and have an insight, can’t see mechanism.
Wolfgang Kohler
criticized Thorndike cat experiment
research on apes. inside tent, hangs meat that apes have to get down. Did not use trial and error. Used boxes and when took away used long stick
made tools after took other things away
Reaction to Kohler
behaviorists were skeptical about research with intelligence
made sense to gestalt and functionalists
insight vs trial and error learning
until 1980s with cog psychs, showed that 2 types of memory: implicit (fast) or procedural vs explicit (slow) or declarative-Brenda Milner discovered
Brenda Milner
2 kinds of long term memory
declarative
procedural
procedural: chicks/cats. skills, habits, develop slowly, unconscious
declarative: facts and autobio info. conscious
working memory: items help briefly while attended. conscious
amnesia
anterograde: inability to form new memories after brain damage
retrograde: difficulty remembering events prior to the brain damage
consolidation: converting recent memories into a permanent storage format
Henry Molaison
HM
Brenda Milner researched
surgical removal of hippocampus to treat epilepsy
hippocampus creates declarative memories
surgeon (Scoville) removed left and right hippo
forgot caregivers, same crossword puzzles
couldn’t create any new memories
could learn star tracing
basal ganglia
procedural memory
Founding of behaviorism
used to say 1913
Watson’s behaviorism manifesto:
prediction and control of behavior (no explanation), no instrospection
2. methods should be purely objective,
Behaviorism characteristics 4
- prediction and control of behavior (no explanation), no instrospection
- methods should be purely objective,
- animal subjects preferred bc can control more,
- learning is the most important topic to investigate bc of adaptation
Max Meyer
founder of psych department at MU in 1900
published textbook in 1911 that was purely behavioristic
but specialized in music and grading on curve
fired for advising student on attitudes towards sex and for teaching sexual physiology. Hobart Mowrer was student. MU censured
John Watson
rejected concept of consciousness
theory that thinking is nothing more than subvocal speech
gradually develops in children, balloon
inherit just fear, rage, and love. other emotions are derived from conditioning
experimentally conditioned a baby, Little Albert to fear rat. Stimulus generalization: afraid of dogs, rabbits, fur coat, and santa clause mask. baby intellectual disability and hydrocyphalis
conditioned stimulus: rat
unconditioned stimulus: loud noise
UR: fear
CR: fear of the rat
Radical environmentalism
rejected role of genetics (watson). We inherit a few reflexes but no instincts
neobehaviorism
linked to logical positivism
operational definitions
theories should be written like mathematical laws
Clark Hull
neobehaviorist
grand theory of mammalian behavior 17 laws
most important law:
sEr (the probability that the response will be emitted given that the stimulus is present)=D (drive, motivation) X K (reward or incentive value ) X sHr (habit strength. the number of previous pairings of reward and response, given stimulus situation)
when died, Kenneth Spence kept working it so known as Hull and Spence theory
Burrhus Frederick (BF) Skinner
neobehaviorist but did not completely agree with logical positivism. didn’t need theory. just do experiments
skinner box shows how animal learns the contingencies of reinforcement
- stimulus setting
- response that is reinforced (operant, voluntary)
- Reinforcer (reward)
anomolies
from Kuhn, dealing with paradigm changes
problems with prevailing theory
anomlies with neobehaviorism
Garcia: conditioned taste aversion, violates law of contiguity, learning occurred after one trial
rapid sequential behaviors: like musicians. laschley (behaviorist) calculated the time for stimulus to go from hand to brain and back down again, too slow. there must be some mental representation of music
radar operators: invented in WWII. operators missing targets after a half hour or so. behaviorists couldn’t offer recommendation. had nothing to do with learning. Decision bias-cog psych solved 40 years later, become conservative
late 1970s before cog took over
radical environmental + holistic
changed when findings showed that basic structure controlled by genetics
Noam Chomsky
critiqued Skinner’s book on lang dev
skinner had said that learning to talk is no different than a rat learning to press a bar to get food
criticisms
- how would analyzed stimuli and reinforcement contingencies allow you to predict the response to say, a painting in a museum?
- stages of lang acquistion are fixed and common-genetic control
- spontaneous sign lang
skinner never rebutted
Cybernetics
branch of engineering dealing wih control systems
thermostat (dial with set point to put desired temp and thermometer that registers actual temp) computes error signal = actual-desired
if too low turns on furnace which turns on air and goes to thermostat
models purpose: therm has purpose to keep at desired level
models decision making: if too cool turns furance on, if too warm turns on
contrib to cog rev bc mental phenomena are not beyond realm of science: if can figure out decision making in machine then can figure out in poeple
Digital computer
invented during ww2
Cog psych def
cog psych is the study of how the human mind represents and processes information
key factors leading to rev of cog
- computer science and cybernetics legitmized the study of mental processes
- provided a language that psychs could use to describe how mind works like input, output, memory buffers, feedback
- computer tech provided analogies: analogy of hardware and software like brain and mind. random access memory: stm and hard drive: ltm
- offered a basis for resolving psych-physiology rivalry
