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Test 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Psychophysics

A

look up

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2
Q

Galileo

A

subjective experience (secondary qualities) cannot be observed

science should be based on measurement and cannot measure subjective experience, impossible for psych to be a science

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3
Q

Gustav Fechner

A

1800s
solved Galileo’s problem
measure something subjective-the intensity of a sensation that someone has

critical breakthrough: What is the relation of the subjective (mental) to the objective (physical). Insight 1850. You could measure an increase in a person’s sensation in terms of amount of physical energy required to bring about that change. Does research on it and publishes book in 1860 on psychophysics

Use JNDs as unit of measurement. intensity. JNDs not constant

Leipzig University professor, had to retire bc of depression. inability to recognize metaphysical ideas with scientific ideas

wrote on Metaphysics under Dr. Mises- everything in universe is conscious, just a matter of degree
Baruch Spinoza believed (Leipzig also believed). MIND-BODY problem. He felt like he solved problem

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4
Q

First person to measure something subjective

A

Gustav Fechner

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5
Q

Ernst Weber

A

1800s

  1. First to study thresholds (Leibniz, Herbart)-builds off Limen threshold. studied in Lab. skin sensations. Acuity. plotted results using graph.
  2. Discovered 6th sense: Kinesthetics/Prioprioception (movement, position of limbs)-builds off Aristotle combined 5 senses to make Common Sense. Now know that sense organs (spindles) inside muscles, report length of muscle. GTO reports force of tendon. Weber compared active and passive perception of weights on the hand
  3. Discovered Weber’s Law (most important) 1834: Fechner realized important and stated in mathematical version. Just noticable difference over intensity equals the Weber constant. First quantitative Law in Psych

Leipzip University

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6
Q

Acuity

A

tactile
Ernst Weber studied for thresholds
used compass and 2 points on arm, seeing how close together when notice 2 points

Limen: consciousness threshold

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7
Q

Kinesthethesis

A

Weber discovered as 6th sense

compared active and passive (hand lying there or grabbing object) perception of weights on the hand. greater than, less than, or equal to. studied threshold for subject to notice

more accurate if active. getting sensation from muscles

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8
Q

Weber’s Law

A

first quantitative law in Psych

how much do the 2 have to be separated for subject to notice

JND
not fixed value, just proportion
I=intensity
K=the Weber constant, differs based on stimuli

relative to how much start with

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9
Q

Leipzig University

A

Wundt

psych begins

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10
Q

Create a measurement scale

A

relates to Fechner

need operational definition for ratio level to define zero point

for intensity of person’s sensation, need rule

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11
Q

2 types of thresholds

A

Absolute threshold as the zero point for the measurement scale:
intensity of physical stimulus that the subject has a 50% chance of detecting in its prescence

Discrimination threshold (JND) as the unit of measurement for sensation: change in physical stimulus intensity such that the subject has a 50% chance of detecting

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12
Q

Method of adjustment

A

subject turns knob to detect

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13
Q

Estimating absolute thresholds

A
  1. method of Adjustment
  2. Method of Limits
  3. Method of Constant Stimuli
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14
Q

Zero Point

A

intensity of physical stimulus that the subject has a 50% chance of detecting in its prescence

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15
Q

Discrimination threshold (JND) as the unit of measurement for sensation

A

change in physical stimulus intensity such that the subject has a 50% chance of detecting

standard stimulus and variable stimulus. how far apart for subject to be able to discriminate 50% of the time

same methods used in absolute thresholds

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16
Q

Method of Limits

A

Stimuli are presented in blocks of discrete trials in which intensity either progressively increases of decreases, subject responds yes or no

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17
Q

Method of Constant Stimuli

A

like method of limits, except that intensities are presented in random order

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18
Q

Stanley “Smittty” Stevens

A

1900s
invents improved method to Fechner’s law
“Magnitude estimation”

subject either draws or thinks up a number to indicate how strong the sensation is. Experimenter gives an example of an anchor point
gives consistent results with lots of trials
drew graphs
objective on x, subjective on y axis
most obey Fechner’s law, mainly confirmed but some don’t work that way (Pain, heaviness, gripping)

Dark cave= 0 and blue sky=1000
Came after Likert scale

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19
Q

Fechner’s Law

A

1860
In terms of physical intensity, JNDs get bigger as the stimulus intensity grows (Weber’s law)
as intensity gets bigger takes more of a change to get JND

S=K*logI
relates subjective and objective intensity
K is different than Weber’s

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20
Q

Stephens’ Power Law

A

more accurate and general
S=K*I to N

n makes it curve correct way depending on stimulus
established relationship between sensation and intensity

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21
Q

Mental Chronometry (RT)

A

origins in Astronomy
Herman von Helmoltz
Franciscus Donders
Saul Sternberg

galileo: mental processes can’t be measured

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22
Q

Reaction Time

A

Astronomy
Greenwich Observatory (created time zones, longitude)
Astronomer royal, Maskelyne, fires his assistant, Kinnebrook, over discrepancies in stellar transit times. 1796

latitude and longitude needed accurate clocks. calibrate by stars over Greenwich. But can’t do too things at once (look at star and write down). Counting ticks

1822 Bessel reads about it: thinks: maybe people differ in their mental abilities. Find out average how much differ and correct measurement (scientists starting to come to grips with error variance)

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23
Q

Freidrich Bessel

A

1800s

1822 correcting for individual differences in astronomy reaction time. averages
accounting for individual differences in mental speed

start of mental chronometry

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24
Q

Herman von Helmholtz

A

1850: measured the speed of action potential-first nerve of frog
invented device to measure unit of time no matter how small: Oscilloscope (draws time where time is on x and voltage is on y axis . EMG=muscle reacting
velocity=distance/time

people thought speed of light but Helmholtz proved car, no where near speed of light. Implied that mental processes take time

know latency and image-be able to recreate
couldn’t do his study with voluntary reactions

connected to action potential person

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25
Q

Electrical impulses

A

represent visual images, voices, sounds. In our brain, just pattern of electrical impulses represents thoughts, emotion, perception, and intention

memories are patterns of synaptic connections

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26
Q

Inserted stage/interval

A

Helmholtz method- when compare two trials, trial

why latency on trial 2 is different than trial 1-has to go further, inserted stage

if estimate duration of mental process (like deciding on pressing which button). create two tasks, in one has to decide which to press, in other already know which to press. can subtract and get reaction time

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27
Q

Franciscus Donders

A

1800s
Dutch Ophthalmologist

invented “subtraction method” for analyzing reaction time with language

Go/NoGo reaction time task. 5 possible stimuli. Ignores all except Ki, if hears Ki then reacts (“goes”). compare to simple RT task, the stimulus is always “Ki” and always respond with no discrimination needed. Inserted stage is perceptual discrimination.

3rd task= Choice Reaction Time task. Estimate how long response selection takes. 5 responses to choose from. In choice has to select response (inserted stage)

Basis for cognitive psych research. Wundt used

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28
Q

Subtraction method

A

Donders
objective estimate for the duration of a cog process

did with lang and saying sounds-used tongue depressor that turned off clock

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29
Q

criticisms of subtraction method

A
  1. assumption of pure insertion (Oswald Kulpe) inserting a stage such as a response selection, might change the duration of other stages
  2. Assumption of Nonoverlapping stages: a later stage might begin before the preceding stage is completely finished
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30
Q

Saul Sternberg

A

1969
brought back subtraction method and cog approach
working memory
gets memory set and task is to hold in working memory and determine if probe letter was in set

see flow chart

pure insertion assumption: adding each item makes the RT increase by 32 ms.

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31
Q

event-related potentials

A

mental chonometry now

latency of brain waves

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32
Q

electrophsyciology?

A

EEG?
Hans Berger discovered Adrain replicated

EEG helped determine sleep and types of sleep and diagnosing epilepsy

once computers could study a lot more like signal averaging

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33
Q

Descartes

A 
hydraulic theory (balloon theory) disproved in 1600s by Swammerdam
showed that the volume of a muscle does not change when activated

muscle not like balloon. but when flex muscle, it gets bigger. creates force by contracting

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34
Q

Luigi Galvani

A

1771
touched electrically charged piece of metal to frog legs
nervous system works by electricity

Ben Franklin (lightening) influenced him

1791 writes up results in book

Alessandro Volta got copy of book

nephew did study on dead bodies-moved
triggers action potential, muscle thinks brain sent and contracts

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35
Q

Resting potential and action potential

A

Galvonometer-compass meter
1820 device to measure electricity

Matteuci 1843 measured electricity in the body. discovered resting potential

neurons charged like batteries .07 volts (or -70 mV). positive and negative ions, ready for action potential

if stimulated then action potential (spike, nerve impulse). travels down axon. stops and squirts out neurotransmitter

depolarize: become less negative
membrane potential: voltage inside the cell, compared to outside

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36
Q

Matteuci

A

1843 measured electricity in the body
compares interior of cell and exterior. measure the difference, found voltage with compass meter
discovered resting potential

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37
Q

Synpatic transmission

A

neutransmitters stored in vesicles

when action potential arrives at terminal button, causes transmitter to squirt out
some transmitter molecules active receptors on the post-synaptic cell membrane

seratonine=happiness
dopamine=reward center
citocolim (sp)=alzheimers
neurepiphine=arousal

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38
Q

Emil du Bios-Reymond

A

1800s
discovered action potential 1847

what if animals don’t normally make electricity? what if just injured? didn’t cut in half

leads to Helmholtz’s experiment with velocity

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39
Q

Edgar Adrian

A

recording action potential in single cell in a muscle
1900s

action potentials all the same size (All or nothing principle)
instead rate of firing, how many action potentials per second

replicated Berger’s brain activity findings

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40
Q

Ida Hyde

A

1850-1950

founded physiology department at KU

invented glass pipette electrode small enough to record from a single neuron

41
Q

Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley

A

studied squid giant axon

impulse travels slowly bc it is based on charged particles moving into and out of the axon

42
Q

Hans Berger

A

1929
measure electrical activity in humans (?) EEG

on brain,
discovered Alpha rhythm (come from back of head, if closes head and doesn’t think then big waves but if looks at something or imagines then goes away. alpha waves means the cortex is not doing anything)- 8-12 cycles per second and Beta waves

43
Q

Holistic vs modular

A

brain debate

44
Q

mind vs body

A

mind: Hippocrates
heart: Aristotle

settled in 1600s

William Harvey demonstarting that heart pumps blood
Descartes theorized that soul in brain and sensiormotor controlled by nervous system, hydraulic

45
Q

Reflex

A

Descarte discovered, Robert Whytt first to systematically study: terms stimulus and response. Whytt, some reflexes are in the brain and others in spinal cord

frog intact: flexer withdrawal reflex (leg)
cuts head off and brain gone: leg withdrawal (Brain not necessary)
brain and spinal cord destroyed: no response, spinal cord needed for flexer withdrawal

46
Q

Robert Whytt

A

reflexes

47
Q

Bell-Magendie Law

A

1800s
Sensory info enters spinal cord from back (dorsal) and motor info leaves from front side (ventral). brain is similiar
supports Whytt

48
Q

Dorsal

A

back

49
Q

Ventral

A

front

50
Q

Priority Dispute

A

who discovered law first?

Francois Magendie (1800s) cut nerve on either front or back side of the spinal cord and then observed effects on behavior (treated animals awful, started animal rights movement)

Sir Charles Bell: claimed Magendie’s were unnecessary bc he had discovered law earlier. Bell thought he was more humane

51
Q

Francois Magendie

A

in dispute over who discovered Bell-Magendie Law

should get more credit

52
Q

Sir Charles Bell

A

in dispute over who discovered Bell-Magendie Law

back-dated, wasn’t doing everything he said he was

53
Q

Phrenology

A

brain highly specialized
bump was muscle
depression= underdeveloped

Franz Gall 1700-1800s

1810 Johann Spurzheim published first book

bumps on head don’t correspond well to bumps on brain
list of faculties and personality traits was arbitrary and no research

Pros: convinced public that mind is in brain. said personality and mental abilities could and should be measured. noted that brains of women and blacks not inferior. made future theories of specialization easier to accept

54
Q

Brodman

A

52 areas of cortex

connected to phrenology

55
Q

Pierre Flourens

A 
1800s 
animal lesion studies: took male dog and cut open skull and destroyed cerebellum. nursed back to health.  put with female dog in heat.  still mated.  falsified Gall and Spurzheim's prediction
sex drive (amativeness) located by Gall and SPurzheim at back of brain (cerebellum)

supported holistic view of brain based on animal studies but did make some distinctions in brain:

  1. cerebral hemispheres: perception, judgement, memory, and voluntary behavior
  2. Cerebellum: motor control
  3. Medulla: control of basic life functions (respiration, blood pressure, etc). lesion not a good way to study this part
56
Q

Holistic view of brain

A

Flourens (but supported some specialization)

clinical neurologists: didn’t matter where brain was damaged, just how much damage

Karl Lashley (tried to find where memories were located, failed)

didn’t deny sensory areas

behaviorists opposed to

57
Q

Pierre-Paul Broca

A

discovered brain region that controls ability to talk

left side

58
Q

Karl Wernicke

A

discovers brain region that controls ability to understand spoken speech
left side

59
Q

Phineas Gage

A

accident 1848
change in personality. might be part of brain for personality

case supported specialization view of brain

60
Q

Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig

A

discovered motor cortex 1800s
electric shocks to different places in dog’s brain

David Ferrier discovered visual cortex and auditory

61
Q

modular specialization of brain

A

Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig

Gage

62
Q

Karl Lashley

A

1900s
attempted to find locus of memory in rat
didn’t matter where made the cut, no one place where memory was
location doesn’t matter, what matters is the amount of tissue damaged

missed hippocampus

63
Q

Neoropsych

A

study of behavioral consequences of brain damage

developed in context of location vs holistic view of brain

64
Q

Franz Gall

A

phrenology

correctly found language spot-challenge about if correct

65
Q

Pierre Paul Broca

A

Broca’s area
originally favored holistic view
colleague (Auburtin) favored localization
Aphasic patient named Leborgne (said “Tan” only) see if lesion in frontal lobe near eyeball. Patient could understand but couldn’t talk. lesion was where Gall predicted

Symptoms of Broca’s Aphasia: know

dysarthria: difficulty to producing sounds with mouth
anomia: inability to name objects or find right word
agrammatism: not good with grammar

66
Q

Carl Wernicke

A

discovered second region in left hemisphere but aphasia for comprehending language

67
Q

Aphasia

A

don’t know have problem-lose concept
Broca and Wernicke

Conduction aphasia: disruption of track extending from Wernicke’s and Broca’s. Can’t repeat exactly

68
Q

Wernicke-Geschwind Model

A

Norman Geschwind 1900s brought back Wernicke’s theory and rearticulated it

model of language: takes 2 different situations and describe two different brain areas
first situation: say a word that has just been heard: auditory cortex, then Wernicke’s area, transmits to Broca to say it, then sent to motor cortex to produce movement in speaking. 4 areas all in left hemisphere

second situation: word is visual, saying a word that is read. Start in visual cortex, then angular gyrus to convert visual into auditory representation, then Wernicke, then Broca, then motor cortex

69
Q

Neuroimaging

A

tell parts of the brain that are active

structural: 3d rendored view, or 2d. anatomy simply structure
functional: analyzes activity level of brain. Voxel (volume element, analogous to 2d pixel)

take structural image and put functional voxels on it

CT scanner

70
Q

Hounsfield and Allan Cormack

A

invented CT scanner

71
Q

functional neuroimaging

A

look up what this is
PET was the first: Positron Emission Tomography
participant injected with radioactive blood sugar or radioactive oxygen: to get activity. more active areas emit more positrons

Decay generates positorns a type of antimatter, then 2 photons
atom smasher that only stays radioactive for few minutes

PET scanners no longer used bc of radioactivity, blurry images, and mental process needs to last a long time

fMRI has replaced PET scans: fast and safe, good spatial resolution. subject placed in high powered magnet.

Structural scans: Free protons line up with the magnetic field. pulse of radio waves make them wobble. As they line up again they give off energy (photon), that’s the signal

functional MRI: hemoglobin in blood distorts magnetic field. The distortion is different with and without oxygen attached. Brain tissue that is active receives all the oxygen plus a little bit extra. Makes it look different in MRI scan

BOLD: Blood oxygen level dependent

72
Q

Michael Gazzaniga

A

founder of cognitive neuroscience
study of neural basis of human info processing

combines:

  1. neuroimaging
  2. neuropsycholog
  3. Cog Electrophsyoplogy (EEG)
73
Q

Michael Posner

A

Combined cog psych with functional neuroimaging

used Fransciscus Donders method: reaction time and estimating duration for mental process (simple, choice, go/nogo). inserted stage

Posner saw where things lit up, subtracting pictures and seeing differences. Had different tasks: read noun silently, read noun out loud, read noun and say a verb that goes with it.

Wernicke-Geschwind model not true for reading word. can comphrehend within visual cortex (for adults) when reading

74
Q

Structuralism

A

BASIC STRUCTURES
Wundt (but he didn’t call that, he said voluntarism”

tichtener coined
Cornell University the center
analogy of studying organs of body: anatomy=structuralism
physiology=functionalism

structuralism= basic elements that make up our conscious experience 
functionalism= mental and behavioral processes by which an organism adapts to its environment.  evolution
75
Q

Schools of thought in Psych

A

Structuralism-conscious mental phenom
Functionalism: overt behavior and mental phenom
Gestalt-Conscious mental phenom
Psychoanalysis?-conscious and unconscious mental
Behaviorism-overt behavior

76
Q

Wundt

A

founder of scientific psych

first proposed physiological psych then Experiemental psychology

Worked with Helmholtz, then moved to Leipzig U in 1876

1879 founding of psych

Brass Instrument Era of psych
First Lab: 1879
first grad program, textbook (1874), first journal (originally Philosophical Studies, later Psychological Studies)
most articles in journal about sensation and perception

Circumplex model of emotional competence (Valance and Arousal)

77
Q

John Stewart Mill

A

Associationism: said psych couldn’t reach sophistication of physics

78
Q

William James

A

advocated science of psychology

79
Q

Led to Wundt

A

Fechner: psychophysics
Donders: Reaction Time
Galton: Questionnaire Survey

introspection

Germany-new type of university

80
Q

University

A 
first: Academicy-Plato
First University: University of Bologna 
First Research University: University of Berlin Humboldt 
First College in America: Harvard 
First Research in America: John Hopkins

University and College difference: University has higher degrees

81
Q

Criticisms of Wundt-5

A
  1. Narrow view of Psych
  2. Bad writer
  3. Did not use evolution theory
  4. Research was guided by a theory that was wrong (Associationism)
  5. Overemphasis on introspection
82
Q

Positives of Wundt-4

A
  1. Firsts
  2. trained most of the first generation of German and American psychs
  3. Published massive amount of research
  4. Worked tirelessly to get scientific psych accepted as an academic discipline and succeeded
83
Q

Edward Titchener

A

1800-1900s
Leader of Structuralism in US
endorsed Locke’s atomistic theory
all conscious experience can be broken down into sensations (at first thought sensations, images, and emotions). Yellow banana experiment

84
Q

Oswald Kulpe

A

criticized subtraction theory and Titchener
claimed that sometimes had mental experiences that were not composed of sensations or images (like searching, doubting, hestitating)

illustrated that problem with methodology of introspection

85
Q

Functionalism- 6 ideas

A

FUNCTION-HOW
Understand the mental and behavioral processes by which an organism adapts to its environment
1. Rejected Atomistic theory
2. Mental processes have functions. Evolve for reason, adaptation
3. Applied science as well as basic science-social education clinical criminal
4. Diverse methods should be used, all types of participants
5. Behavioral and mental processes- Overt behavior and conscious mental phenom
6. Differences are as important as generalities (practical reasons for tests and theoretical for evolution)

1890 or 1896
William James: Principles of Psychology
John Dewey: paper criticizing reflexes

University of Chicago-Dewey and Angell

least well defined but very influential and never died

86
Q

Germany’s fade-4

A
  1. too narrow
  2. failed to embrace practical problems
  3. Didn’t use evolution and animal research
  4. War and economic problems
87
Q

US’s rise-3

A
  1. Phrenology and Mesmerism-public interest, practical benefits
  2. Economic Expansionism-creating universities and jobs
  3. University administrators wanted to hire people with practical new ideas
88
Q

John Dewey

A

Functionalism

89
Q

Wallace and Darwin Key assumptions

A
  1. Overpopulation-number of offspring greatly exceeds food supply
  2. Individual differences-genes mutate because of errors
  3. natural and sexual selection: best genes are more likely t survive
90
Q

Stanley Hall

A

late 1800s and early 1900s

first person to receive doc degree in psych under William James
Founded first lab in US 1880-John Hopkins
founded first psych journal 1887
Founded APA-scientific society-talk about research findings

91
Q

James Cattell

A

late 1800s early 1900s
under Wundt and studied under Hall

with Galton tried to measure intelligence using sensorimotor ability-didn’t work

study on reading-discovered word superiority effect-Tachistioscope-subject can read a letter more quickly and accurately when it is part of a word than when it is part of a random letter string or just presented in isolation
Modern interpretation: in word condition, receives top-down and bottom-up info but in letter only condition, only bottom-up info

92
Q

William James

A

Top psych from survey
neurotic
one of first to reject atomistic theory-did not believe that consciousness can be analyzed in terms of basic elements-analysing consciousness changes it
“stream of consciousness” -continuous not discrete-

consciousness is selective-countless stimuli and we focus on a few. survival relevant stimuli catch our attention

consciousness must have a function, cope with novel situations where instinct and habit are not enough

habits- automaticity: once a sequence of automatic behaviors is initiated we carry them out to completion without making a choice at each stage

distinction beween conscious behavior and habit anticipated the contemporary distinction between automatic and controlled processes

james-lange theory of emotion

involved in parapsych-hurt image

93
Q

Habits evolve-4 and advice-5

A

James

  1. simply the movements needed to achieve a goal
  2. increase the accuracy of behavior
  3. reduce fatigue
  4. reduce need to pay attention to habit and allow you to do something at the same time

James’ advice about habits

  1. place yourself in situations that encourage good habits and discourage bad ones
  2. Do not allow yourself to act contrary to new habit you are attempting to develop
  3. don’t attempt to slowly develop a good habit or get rid of bad. make it abrupt
  4. it is not the intention that matters, it is actual doing so (making connections in nervous system from stimulus to response)
  5. force yourself to act in ways that are beneficial, even if you don’t like it and requires lots of effort
94
Q

James-Lange theory of emotion

A

Perceive then triggers visceral and skeletomotor response (Reflex) then emotion by perceiving what is happening in body. example: sad because you are crying

Common sense view: first perceive, then have emotion, then visceral (internal organs and stress hormones) and skeletomotor response

1890

not endorsed anymore. Explains a small aspect of emotion. Visceral reaction does contribute to strength. Emotions are faster than body response

95
Q

Walter Cannon

A

1920
criticized James-Lange theory
fight or flight response

  1. if visceral is always the same then how do we have different emotions
  2. people with spinal cord injury still have emotions

responses to Cannon 1970s

  1. responses not exactly the same in different situations, facial expressions differ
  2. the face and head are not damaged, they still express emotions. also report that they do feel less emotion
96
Q

Schacter and Singer

A

1960s
emotions
2 factor theory: Arousal (fight or flight) + Appraisal (Cognitive) = Emotion
experiment: injected with adrenalin or placebo. some told about adrenalin and others said it was vitamin. half were with a stooge making jokes and other half with a stooge who was angry
subjects who were told adrenaline was vitamin experienced the same emotions like stooge

97
Q

Somatic Marker Theory

A

descended from James-Lange emotion
Antionio Damasio developed
Visceral emotion (gut reaction) ->summarizes all of the mental thoughts and feelings. use it to make rapid and important decisions

98
Q

JB Rhine

A

1900s
center for study of parapsych
ESP: extrasensory perception exists

didn’t specify null model
one of best subjects was cheating

Uri Gellar-psychic vs Great Randi (proved Gellar wrong, offered 1,000,000 for someone to do trick that he couldn’t do, no one could do)

History Of Psych (6 decks)

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