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Honors Biology 1110 > Test 4 > Flashcards

Test 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

2 Types of Mutations

A
  1. Point Mutation
  2. Chromosomal Mutations
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2
Q

Point Mutation

A
  • change in a nucleotide in a DNA sequence due to an error in replication
    a) silent mutation
    b) missense mutation
    c) nonsense mutation
    d) frameshift mutation
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3
Q

silent mutation

A
  • error does not change the amino acid that is coded for
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4
Q

missense mutation

A
  • error that does change the amino acid that is coded for
    i) neutral - does not alter protein function
    ii) negative - reduces protein function
    iii) positive - enhances protein function
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5
Q

Chromosomal Mutations

A
  • changes in chromosomal number or structure
  • changes in chromosomal number would be anueploidy or polyploidy
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6
Q

Chromosomal Mutation - Change in Structure

A
  • duplication
  • deletion
  • translation
    inversion
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7
Q

Duplication mutation

A
  • a segment from one chromosome is transferred to its homologous chromosome, giving it a duplicate of some genes
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8
Q

Deletion mutation

A
  • a chromosome segment is lost
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9
Q

Translocation mutation

A
  • a segment from a chromosome is transferred to another chromosome
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10
Q

Inversion mutation

A
  • occurs when a chromosome breaks in 2 places
  • segments are reversed and re-inserted into chromosome
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11
Q

What are the most problematic chromosomal mutations?

A

inversion and translocation

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12
Q

Evolution

A

change in the allelic frequencies of a population over time

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13
Q

Darwin’s 5 Observations

A

1) in nature there are more individuals born to a population than wii survive to reproduce; the struggle for existence
2) most populations tend to stay the same year to year; struggle for existence
3) there is heritable variation in traits within populations: differential reproductive success
4) some trait variants allow their precessor to be more successful at surviving and reproducing; differential reproductive success
5) those trait variants will become more common in future generation; evolution

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14
Q

Evolution by Natural Selection

A
  • change in allelic frequencies of a population over time due to differential reproductive success that is based on heritable variation within a population
  • requires:
    a) heritable variation
    b) differential reproductive success
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15
Q

heritable variation

A
  • mutations
  • sexual reproduction (crossing over and independent assortment)
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16
Q

differential reproductive success

A

the idea that some individuals in a population produce more offspring than others due to differences in traits that affect survival and reproduction; leads to traits becoming more common in the population over time

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17
Q

Fitness

A
  • the number of copies of an individual’s genes in future generations
  • function of quantity and quality
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18
Q

4 Modes of Natural Selection

A

1) Stability selection
2) Directional Selection
3) Disruptive Selection
4) Balancing Selection

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19
Q

Stability Selection

A
  • acts to maintain allelic frequency in the population bc the mean phenotype is the most fit
  • most common
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20
Q

Directional Selection

A
  • acts to make one extreme of the phenotypic range more common because that portion of the range is more fit
  • change in environment
  • once it reaches limit it becomes a stability selection
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21
Q

Disruptive Selection

A
  • acts to divide the population into 2 or more genetically distinct races bc the extreme phenotypes are more fit than the mean
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22
Q

Balancing Selection

A
  • acts to maintain genetic diversity in the population by:
    a) heterozygotes are the most fit
    b) frequency dependent selection
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23
Q

Other Mechanisms of Evolution

A
  1. mutations
  2. gene flow
  3. genetic drift
  4. non-random mating
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24
Q

Gene Flow

A
  • movement of alleles into or out of populations
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25
Q

Genetic Drift

A
  • random events prevent some individuals in a population from reproducing, so population loses genetic variability
    a) population bottleneck
    b) founders effect
26
Q

Population bottleneck

A
  • catastrophic event wipes out a significant portion of the population
27
Q

Founders effect

A
  • a small subset of parent population emigrates and forms a new population
  • new population is a genetic subset of parent population (genetically different from parent generation)
28
Q

Non-random mating

A

a) forced inbreeding
b) sexual selection

29
Q

Forced inbreeding

A
  • small isolated populations
  • low offspring dispersal rate
    leads to inbreeding depression
30
Q

Inbreeding depression

A
  • reduction in fitness caused by mating with close relative
  • enhanced expression of negative allele (recessive allele)
31
Q

Sexual selection

A
  • directional selections that acts differently on the 2 sexes due to differences in reproductive potential of the sexes
32
Q

Reproductive potential

A
  • the potential number of offspring of an individual
    females: determined by the number of eggs she can make; limited bc eggs are expensive to make
    males: determined by the number of eggs fertilized
  • results in dimorphism
33
Q

Reproductive Traits for Females

A
  • traits that enhance quantity (limited)
    a) ability to get energy
    b) size - affects fish and arthropods
  • traits that enhance quality (natural selection works hard here)
    a) female choice (choosing a high quality male)
34
Q

Reproductive Traits for Males

A
  • traits that enhance quantity (natural selection works hard here)
    a) being attractive to the female
    b) competitive ability
  • traits that enhance quality
    a) being attractive to the female
    b) competitive ability
35
Q

Dimorphism

A
  • non-gonadal (not related to sexual reproduction organs) differences between the sexes
  • 3 versions
    1) females are larger than males
  • female fecundity increases with body size
    2) males are larger than females and have weapons
  • male to male competition for access to females
    3) males exhibit elaborate secondary sexual characteristics (ESSC)
  • females choose their mates
36
Q

2 Explanations for the evolution of ESSC’s

A

1) handicap hypothesis
2) sensory exploitation hypothesis

37
Q

Handicap Hypothesis

A
  • natural selection favors females that are attracted to bright/bold things
  • those ‘things’ serve as an honest signal of male genetic quality
38
Q

Sensory Exploitation Hypothesis

A
  • characteristics evolve because they take advantage of innate (genetically programmed), often unexpressed preferences in females
39
Q

Speciation

A

the evolution of one or more species from a parent species

40
Q

Biological Species Concept

A
  • a species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that is reproductively isolated from other groups
  • limited to sexually reproducing organisms
41
Q

Interbreeding

A
  • the ability to produce viable offspring
42
Q

2 Steps in Speciation

A
  1. extrinsic isolation
  2. intrinsic isolation
43
Q

Extrinsic isolation

A

something happens to block gene flow between 2 populations of the same species

44
Q

Intrinsic Isolation

A
  • eventually the 2 extrinsic populations evolve to be so different from each other, that they lose the ability to interbreed, should the extrinsic barrier go away
45
Q

Intrinsic Isolating Mechanisms

A
  • differences that could arise to remove the potential to interbreed
  • 2 versions:
    Prezygotic Mechanisms
    Postzygotic Mechanisms
46
Q

Pre-zygotic mechanisms

A
  1. Mechanisms
    - differences in the reproductive structures
  2. Temporal
    - changes in the timing of reproduction
  3. Habitat
    - change in habitat used for reproduction
  4. Behavioral
  5. Gametic
    - sperm from one population cannot fertilize eggs from another population
47
Q

Post-zygotic mechanisms

A
  1. zygote doesn’t develop
  2. non-viable offspring
48
Q

Extrinsic Isolating Mechanisms

A
  • stops gene flow between 2 populations
  • 2 versions:
    Allopatric speciation
    Sympatric speciation
49
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A
  • some physical barrier “arises” to stop gene flow from occurring between 2 populations
    -2 versions:
    a) vicariance
  • physical barrier arises
    b) dispersal
  • one population disperses to a different area
50
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A
  • gene flow is halted between 2 segments of a population that co-occur in the same area
  • most common in phytophagous (plant-eating) insects
  • tend to be very species specific
  • disruptive selection or polyploidy
51
Q

Taxonomy

A
  • represents the way organisms are related to each other
52
Q

Systematics

A
  • the study of evolutionary relationships of the organisms
  • tools of systematists:
    a) fossil record
  • transitional fossils
    b) homologies
  • traits shared by different species that points to a common ancestor
53
Q

Types of homologies

A
  1. structural
    - physical traits shared by different species in adulthood that point to a common ancestor
  2. embryonic
    - traits shared by different species during the embryonic stage that point to a common ancestor
  3. genetic
    - similarities in highly conserved genes
    - similarities in non-coding DNA
    - pseudogenes ( genes that have mutated so that they cannot be expressed)
  4. vestigal structures
    - reduced non-functional structures left over from an ancestor
54
Q

Convergent Evolution

A
  • distantly related, but ecologically similar species evolve to have similar traits
55
Q

Human lactoferrin

A
  • protein
  • immune system enhancer
56
Q

3 steps used to make herman

A
  1. isolate gene
  2. clone gene
  3. inject gene into cow
57
Q

Isolating the gene

A
  • tissue sample from an organ donor from a lactating female that is actively expressing the HLF gene is put in a test tube and digested with lipase and protease
  • it is the suspended in ethanol and put in a centrifuge
  • pellet of nucleic acids settles to bottom
  • pellet is suspended in water
  • solution is ran through a poly t column; DNA, tRNA, and RNA are thrown away; the polyA tail on mRNA is bonded to the thymines in the poly T column
  • poly t column is rinsed with a weak acid and mRNA is left over
  • mRNa undergoes reverse transcription (adds DNA nucleotides and reverse transcriptase) to create the HLF gene
58
Q

Cloning the HLF gene

A

uses 2 tools from bacteria
1. plasmid
2. restriction endonuclease

59
Q

Plasmid

A
  • small circular outer bit of DNA found in some bacteria
  • not essential
  • contains genes that can get replicated
  • from the environment or other bacteria
60
Q

Restriction Endonuclease

A
  • enzyme that binds to sections of DNA that have a specific nucleotide sequence and cuts DNA at that location
  • bacterial DNA is methylated and prevents the enzyme from cutting it
61
Q

What is EcoR1?

A

a restriction endonuclease derived from E. Coli used to cut viral DNAs and plasmids forming sticky ends that are easy to ligate

Honors Biology 1110 (4 decks)

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