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Honors Biology 1110 > Test 3 > Flashcards

Test 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Nature of DNA in Eukaryotic Organisms

A
  • in shape of high coiled linear chromosomes
  • 46 chromosomes in humans
  • 2 meters of DNA coiled in nucleus
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2
Q

What are chromosomes composed of?

A
  • chromatin (protein DNA complex)
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3
Q

Characteristics of Chromosomes (in humans)

A
  • 23 distinct shapes/types
  • 2 chromosomes of each tyoe (Type A - Type W)
  • 2 complete sets of 23
  • 23 paternal chromosomes
  • 23 maternal chromosomes
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4
Q

A(paternal) & A(maternal)

A
  • homologous chromosomes
  • contain the same gene
  • not genetically identical
  • same gene, different version
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5
Q

Allele

A

different versions of the same gene

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6
Q

Ploidy

A

the number of sets of chromosomes
ex:
diploid - 2 sets
haploid - 1 set
triploid - 3 sets

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7
Q

Haploid Number

A

the number of chromosomes in a complete set

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8
Q

Cell cycle

A

events between formation of cell and division of cell
1. interphase (majority of the cell cycle)
2. mitosis (nuclear division)
3. cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division) (goes back to interphase)

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9
Q

zygote formation

A

egg (haploid) + sperm (haploid) = zygote (diploid)

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10
Q

How many stages does interphase have?

A

3:
1. Gap 1 (G1)
2. S (synthesis)
3. Gap 2 (G2)

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11
Q

Gap 1

A
  • cell growth
  • normal cell stuff
  • enzyme production (necessary for DNA replication
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12
Q

What is G0?

A

cells that never exit G1
cells that never divide

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13
Q

S stage

A
  • chromosomes replicate
  • MTOC replicates centrioles (MTOC is replicated)
  • dyad is created
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14
Q

Dyad

A
  • pair of sister chromatids (identical)
  • held together by a centromere that contains a kinetochore
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15
Q

Centromere

A

structure in a chromosome that holds 2 sister chromatids together

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16
Q

Kinetochore

A

protein that forms on a chromatid during cell division that allows it to attach to a spindle fiber on a chromosome

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17
Q

Gap 2 (G2)

A
  • mitochondria/chloroplasts divide
  • massive production of tubulin
  • chromosomes start to coil more
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18
Q

How many phases are in mitosis?

A

5

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19
Q

Prophase

A
  • chromosomes become completely condensed
  • centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell
    a. produces polar microtubules (connects the centrioles and will pull the chromosomes apart)
    b. produces aster fibers (connects centrioles to cell membrane)
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20
Q

Prometaphase

A
  • nuclear membrane degenerates
  • MTOCs provide kinetochore microtubules (connects centrioles to cell membrane)
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21
Q

Metaphase

A
  • kinetochore microtubules arrange dyads in an independent assortment manner in the center of the cell
    a. this is the metaphasic plate
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22
Q

Anaphase

A
  • centrosomes break apart
  • chromatids get pulled towards opposite ends of cell
  • polar microtubules lengthen so the cell lengthens
  • spindle apparatus; microtubules involved in mitosis (polar, aster, kinetochore)
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23
Q

Telophase and Cytokinesis

A
  • chromosomes reach end of the cell
  • nuclear envelope forms
  • spindle apparatus disappears
  • chromosomes de-condense
  • belt of actin around metaphasic plate constricts and pinches cell in half
  • cleavage furrow forms (in animal cells)
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24
Q

Gametogenesis

A
  • cells undergo meiosis to form gametes
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25
Q

Prophase 1

A
  • same as in mitosis
    PLUS
  • homologous chromosomes hydrogen bond to each other to create a tetrad (bivalent)
  • 23 tetrads at the end of prophase 1
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26
Q

Bivalent

A

a pair of homologous chromosomes (4 chromatids)

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27
Q

Synapse

A

the pairing of homologs

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28
Q

Crossing over

A
  • homologous chromosomes exchange segments with each other
  • occurs 50-70 times per bivalent
  • responsible for genetic variability
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29
Q

Metaphase 1

A
  • same as mitosis
  • kinetochore microtubules arrange dyads in in the center of the cell
    a. this is the metaphasic plate
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30
Q

Anaphase 1

A
  • homologs separate and dyads are pulled to opposite ends
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31
Q

Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis

A
  • same as in mitosis EXCEPT:
    1. nuclear membrane does not reform
    2. chromosomes stay condensed
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32
Q

Independent Assortment

A
  • random orientation of homologs at the metaphasic plate
  • parental sets of chromosomes do not stay together through meiosis 1
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33
Q

Meiosis 2

A

Prophase 2 - same as mitosis
Metaphase 2 - same as mitosis (23 dyads instead of 46)
Anaphase 2 - same as mitosis (23 dyads instead of 46)
Telophase 2 and Cytokinesis - same as mitosis

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34
Q

What is the result of gametogenesis?

A

Gametes

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35
Q

What is a polar body?

A

little haploid bags of chromosomes

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36
Q

Why is the egg that is produced in oogenesis so large?

A

Egg must be large enough to provide nutrients for 5 days
-occurs in a protective environment

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37
Q

Plant cell divison

A
  • no centrioles in MTOC
  • no aster fibers
  • cytokinesis occurs through cell plate formation
  • division starts in middle and spreads outward
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38
Q

Gene

A

a section of chromosome that codes for a specific trait

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39
Q

Gene pair

A

2 copies of the same gene on homologous chromosomes

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40
Q

Locus

A

physical location of a gene on a chromosome

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41
Q

Dominant allele

A

allele that is always fully expressed when present

42
Q

Recessive allele

A

only expressed if gene pair consists of 2 versions of that allele

43
Q

Homozygous pair

A

gene pair that consists of the same alleles

44
Q

Heterozygous pair

A

gene pair that consists of different alleles

45
Q

Genotype

A

allele make-up of gene pair

46
Q

phenotype

A

physical expressions of the genotype

47
Q

Mendelian genetics

A

the study of inheritance

48
Q

Facts about Mendel

A
  • studied in a monostery as a monk
  • was a mathmetician
  • studied inheritance of 7 traits in pea plants
49
Q

Monoecious

A
  • have both female and male reproductive parts
  • able to self-fertilize
50
Q

Monohybrid Crosses

A
  • true breeding crossing
  • phenotype ratio is 3:1
51
Q

Truebreeding

A
  • produces offspring of the same phenotype
52
Q

Mendel’s 1st Law / Principle of Segregation

A
  • individuals have 2 factors (alleles) for each trait
  • factors segregate during gamete formation so that each gamete only gets one of those factors
  • deduced the diploid nature of eukaryotic organisms (meiosis)
  • 3:1 ratio for the offspring of heterozygotes
53
Q

Dyhybrid Crosses

A
  • 9 genotypes
  • 4 phenotypes
  • 9:3:3:1
54
Q

What explains why dihybrid and monohybrid crosses works?

A
  • any sperm is equally likely to fertilize an egg
55
Q

Mendel’s 2nd Law

A
  • law of independent assortment
  • traits are inherited independently of each other because of independent assortment
56
Q

How did Mendel get “lucky”?

A
  • all traits for the peas were on separate chromosomes
  • all traits for the peas only had 2 alleles
  • all traits for the peas were controlled by one gene
57
Q

Linkage

A
  • genes for 2 traits on the same chromosome
  • genes are inherited dependently
  • only way to stop linkage is by crossing over
58
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A
  • the dominant allele does not completely suppress expression of recessive allele
  • ex: four o’clock flower
59
Q

Co-dominant Alleles

A
  • both alleles are fully expressed in a heterozygote
  • ex: bloodtype
60
Q

What does blood type depend on?

A
  • the presence or absence of certain proteins (antigens)
61
Q

Blood types: phenotype, genotype, and allele

A

A , I^A I^A, I^A
B, I^B I^B, I^B
AB, I^A I^B
O, ii, i

62
Q

Epistasis

A
  • one gene controls the expression of another
  • ex: golden retrievers
63
Q

Polygenic Traits

A
  • a trait that is influenced by more than one gene
  • ex: height
64
Q

Pleiotropy

A
  • a gene that influences more than one trait
  • ex: sickle cell anemia
65
Q

Traits of Sickle Cell Anemia

A
  • a sickle cell lives for 30 days compared to a healthy cell that lives for 4 months
  • sickle cells clump together, cannot move easily through blood vessels, and inhibit circulation
66
Q

What causes sickle cell anemia?

A

it is caused by recessive mutation of 1 hemoglobin gene

67
Q

What is hemoglobin?

A
  • a quaternary protein structure of 4 proteins (contains iron)
  • facilitates the transportation of oxygen in red blood cells
68
Q

Aneuploidy

A
  • number of chromosomes is not a multiple of the haploid number
  • extra or missing chromosome
  • tricomy (3 different chromosomes of the same type)
  • monosomy (1 type of chromosome
69
Q

Errors in Meiosis

A

Non-disjunction (2 types)
- aneuploidy
- polyploidy

70
Q

Non-disjunction

A

some or all homologous pairs fail to separate during Meiosis 1

71
Q

Polyploidy

A

the condition of possessing more than two complete sets of chromosomes

72
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes are homologs in mammals?

A

22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomal / homologs

73
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes are sex chromosomes?

A

1 pair of chromosomes

74
Q

X chromosome

A
  • largest chromosome
  • contains genes for both male and female traits
75
Q

Y chromosome

A
  • smallest chromosome
  • 70 genes
  • SRY gene (epistatic over other sex genes)
76
Q

Sex linked traits

A
  • non-gender specific traits that are carried on the x chromosome
  • ex: color-blindness,
77
Q

Molecular Genetics

A

the study of function and structure of DNA and RNA

78
Q

What is DNA and RNA?

A

polymers of nucleotides

79
Q

H or OH bond on 2nd carbon on nitrogenous base

A

H bond = DNA
OH bond = RNA

79
Q

What does DNA stand for?

A

deoxyribonucleic acid

80
Q

What does RNA stand for?

A

ribonucleic acid

81
Q

What are the two types of nitrogenous bases?

A

Purines and Pyrimidines

82
Q

Purines

A

Adenine and Guanine (both are present in DNA and RNA)

83
Q

Pyrimidines

A

Cytosine (in both RNA and DNA)
Uricil (only in RNA)
Thymine (only in DNA)

84
Q

How many nucleotide are in 46 chromosomes (one cell)

A

of A = # of T

12 billion
# of A = # of T
# of G = # of C

85
Q

What kind of arrangement does DNA have?

A

anti parallel

86
Q

Complementary base pairing

A
  • the manner in which nitrogenous bases align with each other
  • A & T
  • G & C
87
Q

What is DNA’s main jobs?

A
  1. replicates (in S phase)
  2. codes for RNA
88
Q

DNA replication

A
  • starts at origin of replication (OR)
  • small base pair sequences in a chromosome that binds to the enzyme that starts replication
89
Q

Proteins involved in DNA replication

A
  • helicase
  • topoisomerase
  • RNA primase
  • DNA polymerase III
  • DNA polymerase I
  • DNA ligase
90
Q

Helicase

A
  • separates the 2 DNA strands
  • moves from 3’ to 5’
91
Q

Topoisomerase

A
  • moves ahead of helicase
  • uncoils the chromosome
92
Q

RNA Primase

A
  • lays down RNA primer and adds RNA nucleotides to exposed DNA
93
Q

DNA polymerase III

A
  • adds DNA nucleotides to exposed DNA nucleotides
94
Q

DNA polymerase I

A
  • replaces RNA nucleotides with DNA nucleotides
95
Q

DNA ligase

A
  • joins okazaki fragments together
96
Q

semi-conservative replication

A
  • DNA replication model in which the new DNA strand contains one original strand one one new strand (new strands are sister chromatids)
  • formation of dyads
97
Q

DNA replication steps

A
  1. helicase separates the DNA strands
  2. topoisomer binds ahead of helicase and uncoils the chromosome
  3. RNA primase adds RNA primer at OR
  4. DNA poly 3 binds at Or and adds DNA nucleotides
  5. DNA poly 1 replaces RNA primase with DNA nucleotides
  6. DNA ligase joins Okazaki fragments together
98
Q

Okazaki fragments

A
  • short strands of DNA that make up the lagging strand during DNA replication
99
Q

What is the end result of DNA replication

A

46 dyads

Honors Biology 1110 (3 decks)

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