Test 4

Question 1

theory of cognitive dissonance – Festinger

Answer 1

Cognitive dissonance theory was first proposed by American social psychologist Leon Festinger in 1957, and it states that individuals have a fundamental need to hold consistent attitudes, beliefs, and values. He argued that people have an innate need for consistency and, as a result, experience psychological discomfort when their beliefs and behaviours don’t align Festinger suggested that when faced with such inconsistencies, individuals may either change one of their beliefs or take action to reduce their perceived inconsistency. In his research, Festinger found evidence for both these strategies and suggested that each individual will rely on whichever one is easier or immediately available to them.

Question 2

Strengths, limitations and justification to the theory of cognitive dissonance – Festinger

Answer 2

Strengths of theory
Cognitive dissonance can be tested scientifically, such as in Festinger and Carlsmith cognitive consequences of forced compliance experiment. Festinger’s theory was instrumental in demonstrating how people can perform a behaviour, then consequently develop a belief, rather than initially forming a belief and then responding to it.

Limitations of theory
The theory does not consider individual differences, for example people who are highly neurotic are more likely to take action to reduce cognitive dissonance that they experience, than emotionally stable individuals. While the results of cognitive dissonance can be measured, such as through self-report measures, cognitive dissonance itself is unable to be observed.

Justification for attitude change
Small rewards are most likely to affect attitude change by making the attitude to the product more favourable. The smaller the reward, the greater the dissonance.
There are 3 main ways to return to a “comfortable” mental state:
1) change either the internal belief or the external reality,
2) logically justify why belief and reality don’t currently match up, and
3) ignore all facts that contradict your beliefs.

Question 3

Effect of cognitive dissonance on behaviour – avoidance, reduction, rationalisation.

Answer 3

Avoidance: individuals try to avoid situations that could result in increasing cognitive dissonance. A person may avoid people or situations that remind them of it, discourage people from talking about it, or distract themselves from it by undertaking tasks that will take their mind away from the situation/thought process.

Reduction: individuals aim to balance their internal beliefs and external reality to reduce cognitive dissonance. They want to reduce the feeling cognitive dissonance brings them.

Rationalisation: Those individuals that are experiencing cognitive dissonance try and rationalise their beliefs and or behaviours to reduce the cognitive dissonance.

Question 4

magnitude as a factor affecting cognitive dissonance

Answer 4

Magnitude is a subjective measure of the level of discomfort an individual feels when they experience cognitive dissonance. The greater the magnitude of dissonance, the greater the pressure felt to reduce it. There are two factors that predict the amount of discomfort felt due to cognitive dissonance:
1. The more value an individual places on either of the two conflicting cognitions, the greater the magnitude of the dissonance
2. The maximum level of dissonance an individual can manage before needing to reduce the discomfort.

Question 5

responses to cognitive dissonance – change beliefs, change behaviour, change perception of the action

Answer 5

Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort that arises when a personal belief, thought, or hope is directly contradicted by hard facts. Humans are the most comfortable when their internal beliefs and the external reality of the world are consistent with each other. Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is inconsistency between 2 cognitions.
Cognitions: knowledge, opinions, beliefs (relating to self, behaviour, or environment)
Dissonance: A state of psychological tension which motivates people to do something to get rid of it to resume cognitive consistency.

Question 6

cause and affect of cognitive dissonance

Answer 6

Causes for cognitive dissonance- Cognitive dissonance can originate from either internal source, such as doubts and inconsistencies in one’s own thinking, or external sources, such as disagreements with others. Effect- Cognitive dissonance can have a wide range of effects on individuals – from the feeling of discomfort and anxiety to changes in behaviour, reactions to new information, and decision-making processes.

Question 7

study: Cognitive consequences of forced compliance (Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959)

Answer 7

Forced compliance paradigm.
1. Wooden peg task
2. Spools of thread task

Method of the experiment- Participants have to tell next participants entering the task that task was really interesting (3 conditions): C1: paid $1, C2: paid $20, C3: Control (not paid at all) Aim of the experiment- The aim of this experiment was to investigate if making people perform a dull task would create cognitive dissonance through forced compliance behaviour. Independent variable- The amount of money paid to participants. It was easier to justify promoting such a boring task for $20, that is the justification for the behaviour that doesn’t agree with your beliefs. You have to convince yourself that the experiment was fun because $1 is not enough to justify it.

Question 8

• attribution theory to explain behaviour.

Answer 8

Attribution: the process of attaching meaning to our behaviour, or the behaviour of other, by looking for causes to explain the behaviour. Attribution theory- Attribution theory explains how people make sense of their experiences and events. By understanding how people attribute causes to behaviours, we can better understand how they perceive others and act ourselves.

Question 9

situational and dispositional attributions

Answer 9

1. Situational attribution: assigning the cause of behaviour to environmental factors external to the person, for example, social situations and social pressure. Situational factors include the physical or social environment, the influence of culture, or the actions of others that may cause a person to act a certain way. Under these circumstances, a person may not be considered totally responsible for their behaviour.
2. Dispositional attribution: assigning the cause of behaviour to internal factors within the person, for example, personality characteristics, ability, and motivation. When we explain the behaviour of others, we look for enduring internal attributions, such as personality traits. This is known as the fundamental attribution error. This means that the person is held responsible for their actions.

Question 10

Social identity theory – Tajfel and Turner (1979)

Answer 10

This theory is all about becoming part of different groups, and how membership to these groups helps construct our identities. They suggested that people have an inbuilt tendency to categorise themselves into one or more in-groups, building a part of their identity on the basis of membership of that group and enforcing boundaries with other groups

Question 11

social categorisation, social identification, social comparison

Answer 11

1. Categorisation
   We categorise objects in order to understand them and identify them. This looks at the way in which people put others (and ourselves) into categories. We label one another based on interest, ethnicity, gender, occupation and other factors. Calling someone a Muslim, footballer, student, emo, mother, for example, are ways in which we do this. IMPORTANT – this is not always negative and is different to stereotyping.
2. Identification
   People adopt the identity of the group we have categorised ourselves as belonging to. Once a social identity has been identified, people will choose to associate with certain groups. Your collective identity becomes your in-group. This closeness functions to boost our self esteem and to create a sense of belonging. A group or individual that poses as a threat to your in- group is called the out-group.
3. Comparison
   People compare themselves and their groups with other groups, seeing a favourable bias towards the group in which they belong. Nowadays we see younger people dividing themselves into social groups or subcultures based on clothing, the music they listen to or other interests.

Question 12

stereotypes as a form of social categorisation

Answer 12

Stereotypes are mental representations or beliefs about a particular group of people based on their social category (e.g. race, gender, age, nationality.) It is a cognitive process in which individuals classify people into different social groups based on shared characteristics. They are learnt characteristics that are acquired through environmental experiences. From an evolutionally perspective, where they have helped people assess social situations such as danger. Stereotypes are cognitive schemata used to quickly and simply process large amounts of information, freeing up cognitive processing that can be used to perform other mental tasks. From an evolutionary perspective, stereotypes may have helped people assess social situations and consequently avoid danger.

Question 13

relationship between attitudes, prejudice and discrimination

Answer 13

The tripartite model of attitudes: The three aspects of social bias; prejudice, discrimination and stereotypes, are interrelated, but can also occur individually. Social categorisation can lead to prejudice, which is negative feelings held toward members of an outgroup. Prejudice is often described as unjustified attitudes toward members of social groups and is made up of the three components of an attitude, however, people mainly focus on the affective component of prejudice. Discrimination, however, only involves behaviour.

Question 14

distinguish between prejudice and discrimination.

Answer 14

Prejudice does not inevitably lead to discrimination; an individual can discriminate against a group of people without holding negative feelings toward them. Negative feelings or attitudes held toward others can develop into discrimination if these feelings are acted upon. Emotions are a strong component of attitudes; thus, prejudice can become a concern if emotions are so strong that they develop into unjust behaviours against members of an outgroup (discrimination). Once prejudices are learned, stereotypes tend to naturally develop.

Question 15

direct and indirect discrimination

Answer 15

Direct discrimination occurs when an individual is treated unfairly because of a characteristic they have or are assumed to have. Direct discrimination is intentional, For example, a real estate agent telling a single mother with two children that there are no rental properties available, but offering a rental property to a couple with no children.

Indirect discrimination occurs when individuals who have a particular characteristic are unfairly disadvantaged due to conditions or regulations that apply to everyone. Indirect discrimination may be unintentional at times, For example, a public building with no ramp access disadvantages people who use wheelchairs as they are unable to enter the building.

Question 16

causes of prejudice

Answer 16

social influence, intergroup competition, social categorisation, just world phenomenon

Question 17

Social influence

Answer 17

Children learn prejudices from their family, teachers, peers and friends. Television, music and movies are examples of mass media that can reinforce the prejudices learned from the people around them. If a social group an individual seeks to be part of accepts prejudices as the social norm, the individual may be motivated to conform to these attitudes and develop the same prejudices.

Question 18

Intergroup competition

Answer 18

Economic competition over access to resources, wealth and jobs can lead to groups purpose- fully inciting prejudice against outgroups by portraying them as a threat. The chance of prejudice increases when the competing groups are of relatively equal status.

Question 19

Social categorisation

Answer 19

People unconsciously identify individuals that are part of their ingroup, and those that are part of an outgroup. This process of social categorisation occurs immediately upon contact with a new person and is an important tool that minimises effort required to assess the multitude of characteristics each person possesses. Social categorisation is the natural way humans learn and there is nothing wrong with categorising people into differentiated groups if people keep an open mind to changing the categories created and try to avoid the development of prejudices and stereotypes.

Question 20

Just world phenomenon

Answer 20

the assumption people make that everything that happens for a reason and that the world is just (fair). The just world phenomenon is a cognitive bias whereby people make dispositional attributions by blaming victims for the misfortune they are experiencing. For example, that victims of rape are responsible for being assaulted. Making dispositional attributions for people who have had bad things happen to them may lead to negative emotions felt toward them, thus prejudice.

Question 21

reducing prejudice

Answer 21

contact hypothesis including intergroup contact; superordinate goals, mutual interdependence, equal-status contact

Question 22

The Contact Hypothesis

Answer 22

is a psychological theory that suggests that direct contact between members of different social or cultural groups can reduce prejudice, improve intergroup relations, and promote mutual understanding.

Question 23

Intergroup contact

Answer 23

contact between members of different social groups. The contact hypothesis of prejudice reduction is the concept that the more people within social groups interact with each other, the less prejudice they will hold toward each other.

Question 24

equal-status contact

Answer 24

intergroup contact can reduce prejudice and negative stereotypes held by members. Contact hypothesis takes time to produce beneficial results between group members and may not always be successful in reducing conflict.

Question 25

Superordinate goals

Answer 25

goals both groups want to achieve, but that can only be achieved if both groups cooperate. Intergroup conflict is only reduced if the groups succeed in achieving the superordinate goal and intergroup conflict can worsen when failure to reach the goal can be attributed to the actions of the outgroup.

Question 26

Mutual interdependence

Answer 26

groups depend on each other to meet their goals; they have a co-dependent relationship. Equal-status contact: members of both groups must have roughly equal power.

Question 27

study: Robbers Cave experiment (Sherif et al., 1961)

Answer 27

Muzafer sherif believed that intergroup relations become hostile and conflict arises when group compete for limited resources, Sheif and his fellow researchers ran field experiments over three summer camps in 1949, 1953 and 1954. The 1954 camp located at robbers Cave State Park near Robbers Cave. Aim- To examine how intergroup competition leads to prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination towards an outgroup.

Method
Participants- Twenty-two boys aged eleven and twelve years old, who did not know each other previ-ously. All were white, were of average intelligence, and came from stable and Protestant middle-class families.
Materials- Questionnaires measuring attitudes toward fellow participants.
Design- The independent variable was whether there was a competitive environment or a cooperative environment, and the dependent variables were the attitude towards members of the ingroup and outgroup, and number of friends (among others).

Procedure
The boys were invited to attend a summer camp and were not made aware that they were experimental participants, however their parents gave consent for their participation. Their behaviour was observed throughout the camp by researchers who were acting as camp staff. Hidden cameras and microphones aided in these observations.

Question 28

study: Robbers Cave experiment (Sherif et al., 1961)- group formation, intergroup competition and intergroup cooperation

Answer 28

Group formation
The boys arrived at camp in two separate buses and were initially kept apart. Over the next few days, each group shared experiences allowing them to work together. They were asked to write down the boys they considered to be their friends.

Intergroup competition
Researchers created tension and negative intergroup attitudes between the two groups by setting up competitive activities such as tug-of-war, baseball and a treasure hunt. The boys completed questionnaires recording their attitudes toward fellow group members and the outgroup, and were asked to name who they currently considered their friends.

Intergroup cooperation
Researchers then attempted to reduce the intergroup friction by creating contact situations where members between groups were in proximity (contact hypothesis. The groups were brought together to watch movies and eat meals together. The beliefs the boys had about their ingroup, and outgroup were measured using ranked scales. It was decided that superordinate goals would be created to see if this would unite the two groups. The water supply was purposefully interrupted, without the boy’s knowledge, and they worked together to have it running again. The boys were told the camp could not afford to rent a movie that the boys wanted to watch, so the groups contributed money then voted on the movie to rent. A truck set to drive into town to collect food was ‘unable to start’, so the boys pulled the truck together using a rope to help start it. All participants were asked again to write down who they were friends with.

Question 29

Key findings- study: Robbers Cave experiment (Sherif et al., 1961)

Answer 29

Group formation
Having the two groups of boys separate and providing opportunities to develop teamwork enhanced cooperation and led to solidarity. A group leader for each group emerged, positive ingroup attitudes were formed and the boys developed friendships. The groups established their own ways to perform tasks, nicknames for each other, jokes, group symbols and a group name. One group named themselves The Eagles, and the other selected the name The Rattlers. Differing social norms became apparent, for example, The Rattlers often swore and were tougher than The Eagles, who did not swear and cried more when they got hurt.

Intergroup competition
During intergroup activities, intergroup relations were observed. Each group planned and carried out raids against the other, threatening posters were made, and there was name-calling and physical scuffles. Through increased cooperation within each group, solidarity between members grew.
Researchers were successful in forming prejudice and conflict between the two groups by having them compete against each other in games and activities. It was observed that when groups competed in a task that could only be achieved by one group, causing dismay for the other, over time, negative stereotypes and attitudes toward the outgroup formed. Questionnaires portrayed positive attitudes toward the ingroup, such as being brave and friendly, and negative attitudes toward the outgroup, including being sneaky
and obnoxious. Results showed 7.5% of The Eagles’ friends were members of The Rattlers, and 6.4% of The Rattlers’ friends were members of The Eagles.

Intergroup cooperation
Bringing the groups together to watch movies and eat meals led to further conflict. Intergroup contact (contact hypothesis) was not enough to reduce prejudice between the two groups. Having them work together to achieve superordinate goals was successful in reducing prejudice and forming positive relationships between them. Outgroup friendships increased significantly with 23.2% of The Eagles’ friends being from The Rattlers, and 36.4% of The Rattlers’ friends being members of The Eagles.

Question 30

social influence theory (Kelman, 1958)

Answer 30

Social influence: occurs when the real or implied presence of people influences the behaviour and attitudes of others. Obedience and conformity are types of social influence. According to psychologist Herbert Kelman, people change their attitudes and beliefs, and consequently their behaviour, due to social influence.

Strengths of theory
- Kelman’s processes of social influence (compliance, identification and internalisation) can be tested experimentally, and its effects can be observed and provide empirical evidence (information gathered through observation or through an experiment).
- Kelman went on to apply his theory to therapy and was able to explain how processes of influence can be directed to the patient’s behaviour both within the therapy situation and applied to real-life situations outside of therapy.

Limitations of theory
- Close observation of behaviour and analysis of the interactions that people have in society is required for this model.
- Kelman’s model is not intended to apply to all changes in attitude resulting from social interaction. For instance, acquiring new skills in a social learning environment is not an example of social influence, however any changes in attitude that come along with acquiring the skills would count as social influence.

Question 31

three social influence processes- kelman

Answer 31

There are three social influence processes and each of them can be viewed as a different level at which individuals accept that they have been influenced. Compliance, identification and internalisation are explained in terms of the reasoning people give for being influenced, the influencing agent who acts as the power source in society, and examples of each influencing process at play.

Question 32

compliance, identification, internalisation

Answer 32

1. Compliance:
   An individual changes attitudes or behaviour with the aim of being rewarded by, or avoiding punishment from, a person or group, or to gain approval or avoid disapproval from them. The desire for approval or a reward, or avoidance of disapproval or punishment, is worth accepting influence, even though the individual does not follow the beliefs of the influencing agent. This form of influence mainly occurs when people are under surveillance or are identified.
2. Identification
   Identification arises when people change their attitudes or behaviours because they want to establish or sustain a satisfying relationship with another person. The relationship may be reciprocal, where there is a mutual exchange between them, or the person may want to be like the other person. Influence is accepted by an individual because the behaviour and attitudes are associated with the desired relationship. This sort of influence occurs when the desired relationship is attractive and satisfying.
3. Internalisation
   The individual accepts influence because the attitude or behaviour of the group is in line with those of the individual. The individual internalises the attitude or behaviour because they are intrinsically satisfied with it being a part of them. As this type of influence is due to rational persuasion, the behaviour is performed whenever the relevant issue arises.

Question 33

factors influencing antisocial behaviour

Answer 33

diffusion of responsibility, audience inhibition, social influence, cost–benefit analysis, groupthink

Question 34

Audience inhibition:

Answer 34

failure to intervene in an emergency in the presence of others due to fear of being negatively judged. The more people present, the greater the risk of audience inhibition.

Question 35

Social influences

Answer 35

When a bystander is unsure of how to behave in an emergency, they will look to fellow bystanders for cues on how to act. This process is known as social influence and explains why inactive bystanders inhibit the helping of others and believe that if others are not intervening in this situation, then it must not be an emergency. Emergencies tend to be ambiguous situations for people who have not experienced them before, therefore most bystanders will not know the appropriate action to take resulting in no bystanders intervening.

Question 36

Diffusion of responsibility

Answer 36

a reduction in personal responsibility when in a group, resulting in the individual being less likely to act. Personal responsibility is divided amongst the bystanders therefore the more people witnessing an event, the less likely any of the bystanders will act.

Question 37

Cost-benefit analyses

Answer 37

The cost-benefit analysis is the psychological process of weighing up the benefit of performing a behaviour, with the potential cost of the behaviour. As previously mentioned, the bystander may feel embarrassed if they misinterpreted the situation as an emergency and intervened. Putting themselves at risk to help someone else is also a cost to consider. Additionally, the bystander may feel guilty or ashamed for not helping.

Question 38

Groupthink

Answer 38

Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs when a group of individuals reaches a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the consequences or alternatives. Groupthink is based on a common desire not to upset the balance of a group of people.

Question 39

• concept of bystander effect

Answer 39

the bystander becomes aware of a potential emergency but may decide to not act because the event might not be an emergency after all, and they do not want to risk embarrassment to themselves in front of others.

Question 40

study: Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies – smoke filled room (Latane and Darley, 1968)

Answer 40

studies prior to 1 test indicated that crowd behaviour can incite a ‘contagion of panic’ where each member of the crowd overreacts to the perceived emergency, leading to increased risk of harm to all present. The possibility of a passive crowd, as opposed to one acting in panic, producing minimal response to a perceived emergency was investigated.

Aim- To observe the behaviour of bystanders in an emergency.
Participants- Eighty-seven male college students living on campus at Columbia University were selected via convenience sampling (Latané taught at Columbia University).
Materials- Preliminary questionnaire and titanium dioxide (used to create smoke).
Design- The independent variable was whether participants were alone, in a group with other participants, or in a group with confederates. The dependent variable was the time the participant stayed in the room before leaving to report the smoke.

Question 41

smoke filled room (Latane and Darley, 1968)- key findings and limitations

Answer 41

Key findings- Results showed that 75% of participants who were alone reported the smoke, 10% of participants who were in a group with two passive confederates reported the smoke, and 384, 0-participants who were in a group of three reported the smoke. During the final interviews, participants stated that they took little notice of the reaction of others in the room, and did not admit, or were unaware, that the people in the room influenced their behaviour. Most explained that they did not act, because they did not believe
there was an emergency.

Criticisms and limitations of the study- Acting in a calm and collected fashion during stressful situations is the culturally accepted social script for American males. Results could have been different if females, or participants from another culture were selected. Generalising results to the population of male and females across different cultures is not possible. One condition in the study included confederates who were told to not respond to the smoke. It is likely individuals would respond to smoke in a similar situation and share their attitudes within the group. This study was therefore not realistic. Today titanium dioxide is classified as a carcinogen as exposure to the fumes can cause burns to the eyes, throat, nose and lungs. The physical safety of the participants was not upheld.

Question 42

factors influencing prosocial behaviour

Answer 42

reciprocity principle, social responsibility, personal characteristics (empathy, mood, competence), altruism

Question 43

Reciprocity principle

Answer 43

the social norm where a person feels obligated to return the favour to a person that does something for them. Reciprocity concerning the exchange of helpful behaviour between people is related to altruism. In this case, there is no expectation of a returned favour due to the assumption that the person being helped would do the same thing for them.

Question 44

Social responsibility

Answer 44

the theory that individuals are accountable for acting in a way that benefits society. Individuals with a higher level of social responsibility perform more pro-social behaviours than those with lower levels of social responsibility.

Question 45

Personal characteristics of someone engaging in pro social behaviour

Answer 45

• Empathy: Empathy: the ability to sense and share the thoughts or feelings of another person. Individuals that can empathise with an individual in distress are more likely to act pro-socially in response because they can view the perspective of the other person.
• Mood: When an individual is experiencing a low mood, they are less likely to help others an individual is in a positive mood, one theory suggests that they carry out pro-social behaviours to maintain it (known as ‘the feel-good, do-good effect).
• Competence: There is a positive correlation between the competence someone feels, and the way they positively impact others. An individual the believes the can help others is more likely to do so
  Altruism: helping others without expecting a personal reward.

Question 46

Altruism:

Answer 46

helping others without expecting a personal reward. altruistic behaviour is unselfish and may result in the person helping by putting themselves at risk or paying a cost. The more empathy felt by an individual the more likely they are to display altruistic behaviour.

Question 47

helping as an example of prosocial behaviour

Answer 47

Helping: voluntary actions that benefit others. Psychologists have determined several reasons why people help others. One theory is that people are more likely to help others they find similar to themselves (especially close relatives) to strengthen the gene pool and increase the chances that future generations will survive. Helping others can be for altruistic reasons, such as feeling empathy for another person. Personal benefits including an increase in their own positive mood, self-image, or the hope that the person being helped reciprocates the behaviour in the future. Helping behaviour can be taught to young children and reinforced throughout childhood.

Question 48

examples of prejudice and discrimination in society

Answer 48

gender, race, ethnicity, age, disability, mental illness

Question 49

Gender

Answer 49

prejudice and discrimination against people based on their genders is called sexism.

Question 50

Age

Answer 50

ageism may be seen by social service or health care provisioners who undertreat the elderly, or employers refusing to hire people above or below a certain age.

Question 51

Race

Answer 51

racism, is a social construct referring to the division of people into groups based on physical characteristics considered socially significant.

Question 52

Ethnicity

Answer 52

refers to the culture of people based on their geographical location which includes religion, customs heritage and language spoken by people.

Question 53

Disability

Answer 53

feeling uneasy in the presence of a person with a physical disability is an example of prejudice.

Question 54

Mental illness

Answer 54

people tend to avoid or fear people who have a mental illness because they lack educations in regard to mental health problems