Test Flashcards
(128 cards)
0
Q
The nervous system
A
A communication network consisting of the nerve cells(neurons) that carry messages both to and from the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body
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Q
Neuroscientists
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Study the Brian and the rest of the nervous system in hopes of gaining a better understanding of Normal and abnormal behavior ( consciousness, perception, memory, emotion, stress)
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Nervous system functions
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- gather and process information
- produce responses to stimuli
- coordinate the workings of the different cells
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Q
Central nervous system
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- Brian (in the skull)
- spinal cord ( in the spine)
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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- located outside of the skull and spine
- sensory and motor nerves
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CNS
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Receives, processes, interprets and stores incoming sensory info
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Q
Spinal cord
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A collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the base of the brain down the center of the back
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Q
Spinal reflexes
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Automatic require no conscious effort ( touching a hot stove )
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Q
PSN
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Brings sensory information into the CNS and carries motor signals out
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Q
Somatic nervous system
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Voluntary control of body movements ( nerves connected to sensory receptors and skeletal muscles)
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Autonomic nervous system
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Involuntary control of visceral functions ( heart rate, digestion, breathing )
- ) sympathetic nervous system
- ) parasympathetic nervous system
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Q
Sympathetic nervous system
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- Quick response, mobilizing system arousal
- flight or fight
- expend energy
- thoracic and lumbar
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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- Slowly activated dampening system relaxation
- rest and store
- conserve energy
- cranial and sacral
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Neurons
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Specialized cells for the receptor, conduction and transmission of electrochemical signals
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Glia
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Cells that provide support,nurture, and insulate neurons, remove debris when neurons die, enhance the formation and maintenance of neural connections, and modify neuronal functioning
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Sensory neurons
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Carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS
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Motor neurons
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Carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles, glands and organs
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Interneurons
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Connect the 2 neurons
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Cell body
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Life support center
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Dendrites
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Receives messages from other cells
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Axon
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Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
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Neural impulse
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Electrical signal traveling down the axon
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Myelin sheath
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Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
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Q
Neurogenesis
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Production of new neurons from immature stem cells
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Stem cells
Immature cells that renew themselves and have the potential to develop into mature cells
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Neural plasticity
The Brian's ability to change and adapt in response to experience, through neurogenesis, or by reorganizing or growing new neural connections
- Brian can recover from damage
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Threshold
When the excitatory signals minus the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity(threshold) the neuron fires an action potential
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Action potential
Brief change in electrical voltage that occurs between the inside and outside of an axon when a neuron is stimulated
-creates an electrical impulse
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All or non response
Intensity of an action potential remains same along length of the axon
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Neurotransmitter
Chemical substance released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and that alters the activity of a receiving neuron
- neurotransmitter released by vesicles in the axon terminal
- neurotransmitter enters synapse
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Neurons communicate by:
- Neurotransmitter binds to specific receptors on the post synaptic cell that it fits ( lock and key)
- depending on the type of neurotransmitter, once it binds to the receptor it can have either and excitatory effect or an inhibitory effect on the postsynaptic cell
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Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter used by the spinal cord neurons to control muscles and by many neurons in the Brian to regulate memory
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Dopamine
Produces feelings of pleasure when released by the brain reward system
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Gamma-aminobutyric (GABA)
Inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
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Glutamate
Excitatory neurotransmitter in the Brian
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Norepinephrine
Hormones, fight or flight response
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Serotonin
Mood, appetite, and sensory perception, pain pathways ,sleepy
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Endocrine system
Release hormones into the bloodstream
- secreted by glands that affect the functioning of other organs( regulating growth, metabolism, sexual development)
- long distance messengers
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Melatonin
Regulates daily biological rhythms
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Oxytocin
Secreted by the pituitary gland; enhances uterine contractions during childbirth, facilitates ejection of milk during nursing
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Adrenal hormones
Involved in emotions and stress ( cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine
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Sex hormones
Regulate development and functioning of reproductive organs ( androgens, estrogens and progesterone)
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Pons
Involved in sleeping, waking and dreaming
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Medulla
Responsible automatic functions ( breathing and heart rate )
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Reticular activating system
- dense network of neurons
| - arouses the cortex and screens incoming information
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The cerebellum
- regulates movement and balance
- involved in remembering simple skills and acquired reflexes
- problem solving and understanding words
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Thalamus
-relays sensory messages to the cerebral cortex-includes all sensory messages except those from olfactory bulb
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Limbic system
A group of brain areas involved in emotional reaction and motivated behavior
- hypothalamus
- hippocampus
- amygdala
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Hypothalamus
- involved in emotions and drives vital to survival (hunger, thirst)
- regulates autonomic nervous system
- helps govern endocrine system (pituitary gland)
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Amygdala
- responsible for arousal
- regulation of emotion, initial emotional response to sensory information
- plays important role in mediating anxiety , depression, and emotional memory
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Hippopotamus
- storage of new information in memory
- comparing sensory Information with what the brain expects about the world
- enabling us to form spatial memories for navigating the environment
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Cerebrum
- largest Brian structure; 2 cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum( bunde of nerve fibers connecting the 2 cerebral hemisphere)
- in charge of most sensory, motor , and cognitive processes
- surrounded by cerebral cortex and collection of several thin layers of cells (gray matter)
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Occipital lobes ( contain visual cortex)
Contains visuals cortex
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Parietal lobes (somatosensory cortex)
Pressure , pain, touch, and temperature
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Temporal lobes ( auditory cortex)
- memory , perception, and emotion
| - left Kobe : wernicke's area ( language comprehension)
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Frontal lobes ( motor cortex)
- emotion, planning , creative thinking, and take initiative
- left lobe: Broca's area ( speech production)
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Consciousness
Our awareness of ourselves and the environment
| - learning , reading , watching tv
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Biological rhythms
Periodic somewhat regular fluctuations in biological systems
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Internal rhythms
Endogenous
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External rhythms
Exogenous
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Circadian rhythms
- once about every 24 hours
| - sleep-wake cycle
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Infradian rhythms
- occurs less frequently than once a day ( more than 24 hours )
- women's period
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Ultradian rhythms
- occurs more frequently than once a day( shorter than 24 hours)
- hormone fluctuations
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The body's clock
• cicadian rhythm controlled by biological clock in Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
- cluster of cells located in the hypothalamus
-regulates levels of melatonin secreted by pineal glad
~ melatonin induces sleep and helps biological clock keep phase with light and dark cycle
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Internal desynchronization
- a state in which biological rhythms are not in phase with one another
- changes in your normal routines can cause desynchronization
- may occur in response to jet lag, rotating shift work
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Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
- controversial disorder in which a person experiences depression during winter and an improvement of mood in the spring
- treatments may involve phototherapy or exposure to fluorescent light
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Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
Vague cluster of physical or emotional symptoms associated with the days preceding menstruation that was labeled as an illness
- cramps
- irritability
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Unconsciousness
Lack of awareness of one's surroundings or loss of consciousness ( sleeping and dreaming )
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Deep unconsciousness
Complete loss of consciousness
| - anesthesia
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Altered states of consciousness
State of awareness that differ from one's usual waking state ( hypnosis, drug use)
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Rapid eye movement
Characterized by eye movement, loss of muscle tone , and dreaming
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Non -rem sleep
Characterized by fewer eye movements than in REM
- divided into 4 stages with different brain waves
- relaxed brain associated with aloha waves
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Stage 1:
Feel on the edge of consciousness (alpha waves) light sleep
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Stage 2:
Presence of sleep spindles; minor noises won't disturb you
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Stage 3:
Delta waves begin; breathing and pulse have slowed down; hard to be awaken
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Stage 4:
Delta waves predominant; deep sleep ; most likely stage for sleepwalking ( 30-40 min to reach)
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REM:
Increased eye movement, increased respiration and heart rate, loss of muscle tone , dreaming ( last on average of 20 mins)
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Why we sleep
• exact function of sleep unclear but allows for certain processes to occur
- body eliminates waste products from muscles
- repairs cells
- conserves and replenishes energy stores
- strengthens immune system
- recovers abilities lost during the day
- necessary for normal mental functioning
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Chronic sleep deprivation
Increased cortisol levels which can impair neurons involved in learning and memory
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Chronic insomnia
Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep; about 10% of adults have this
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Sleep apnea
Disorder in which breathing briefly stops during sleep, causing person to choke and gasp and momentarily awaken
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Narcolepsy
Disorder involving sudden and unpredictable day time attacks of sleepiness or lapses into REM sleep ( can last 5-30mins)
-maybe caused by degeneration of neurons in the hypothalamus
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REM behavior disorder
Muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep does not occur , sleep (mostly males ) may "act out" their dreams
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Benefits of sleep: memory consolidation
Process by which the synaptic changes associated with the recently stored memories become durable and stable, causing memory to become more reliable
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Psychoactive drug
A substance that alters perception, mood, thinking, memory , or behavior by changing the body's biochemistry
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1.) stimulants
•drugs that speed up activity in the CNS
-feelings of excitement, confidence , euphoria
- increased doses can result in jittering , anxiety, hyper-alertness, convulsions, heart failure , and death
Ex: nicotine, caffeine
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2.) depressants
-drugs that slow down activity in the CNS
• feel calm and drowsy, reduce guilt , anxiety and tension
•enhance activity of GABA
•very kings can result in irregular heartbeats, convulsions, death
EX: alcohol, tranquilizer)
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3.) opiates
- drugs , derived from opium poopy , that relieve pain and commonly produce euphoria
• can enhance transmission of dopamine
EX: heroin, morphine
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4.) psychedelic drugs
Drugs that produce hallucinations, change thought processes or disrupt the normal perception of time and space
Ex: LSD , mescaline
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Anabolic steroids
Synthetic derivatives of testosterone that are taken by pill or injection; used to increase muscle mass and strength
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Marijuana
```
Contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) related to mild euphoria , relaxation, intense sensations and reduced pain and various cognitive deficits
- used medically to reduce nausea for chemo and seizures
```
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Physiology of drug effects
•psychoactive drugs produce their effects by acting on brain neurotransmitter
- increased/ decrease release of NT
- prevent reabsorption of excess NT
- block effects of NT on receiving cells
- bind to receptors that would ordinarily be triggered by NT
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Sensation
The detection, by sense organs, of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects
- Brian receives input from the sensory organs
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Perception
The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information
- the brain makes sense out of the input from sensory organs
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Reception
Stimulation of sensory receptors by energy
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Transduction
Transforming physical energy into electrical energy
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Transmission
Delivering neural information to the brain
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Physical stimulus
•energy that produces a response in a sense organ
| -light , sound , texture , odor
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Sensory receptors
Specialized cells that detect and convert physical energy in the environment or the body to electrical energy that can be transmitted as nerve impulses to the brain
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Photoreceptors
Light
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Chemoreceptors
Taste and smell
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Mechanoreceptors
Touch and pressure
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Thermoreceptors
Temperatures
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Nociceptors
Pain
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Electroreceptors
Electrical currents
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Magneto receptors
Magnetic fields
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Anatomical coding
Doctrine of specific nerve energies statuses that different sensory modalities exist because signals received by the sense organs stimulate different nerve pathways leading to different areas of the brain
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Functional coding
- particular receptors fore or are inhibited in the presence of certain stimuli
- codes relate to which cells , how many and the rate and pattern of firing
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Bottom - up processing
Taking sensory information, integrating it, and sending it to the brain for interpretation
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Top- down processing
Using models ideas and expectations to interpret sensory information
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Sensory adaptation
The reduction or disappearance of sensory responsiveness when stimulation is unchanging or repetitious
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Sensory overload
Overstimulation of the senses
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Selective attention
The focusing of attention on selected aspects of the environment and the blocking out of others
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Inattentional blindness
-failure to consciously perceive something you are looking at because you are not attending to it
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Hue
Dimension of visual experience specified by color names and related to the wavelength of light 400 nm- 700 nm
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Brightness
Lightness or luminance; dimension of visual experience related to the amount (intensity) of light emitted from or reflected by an object
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Saturation
Vividness or purity of color; dimension of visual experience related to the complexity of light waves
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Cornea
Protects the eye and bends incoming light rays toward a lens
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Lens
Becomes more of less curved to focus light on objects
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Iris
Gives eye it's color
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Pupil
I round opening of the eye
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Fovea
Center of retina ( vision is sharpest here)
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Retina
Neural tissues lining the back of the eyeball's interior , which contains the receptors for vision
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Rods
Visual receptors that respond to dim light
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Comes
Visual receptors involved in color vision
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Ganglion cells
Neurons in the retina , which gather information from receptor cells ( bipolar cells)
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Trichromatic theory ( young -helmholtz)
•theory of color perception that processes 3 mechanisms in the visual system , each sensitive to a certain range of wavelengths
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Opponent - process theory
A theory of color perception that assumes that the visual system treats pair of color as opposing or antagonistic
