Test 3 Flashcards
Timbre (complexity)
Dimension of auditory experience related to complexity of a pressure wave
-pure tones- sounds with single frequencies
Loudness (amplitude)
Dimension of auditory experience related to the intensity of a pressure wave (dB)
Pitch
The dimension of auditory experience related to the frequency of a pressure wave
Outer ear
Collect sound waves
Middle ear
- eardrum
- hammer
Eardrum
Vibrates with same frequency and amplitude of the incoming sound wave
Hammer , anvil and stirrup
- move with each vibration of eardrum , intensity for a vibration
- stirrups pushes on oval window ( membrane opens into inner ear )
Inner ear
Cochlea
Organ of corti
Cochlea
Snail snail shaped fluid fill organ in the inner earl
Organ and corti
Structure in cochlea containing her hair cells that serve as receptor for hearing
Papillae
Knoblike elevations on the tongue , containing the taste buds
Taste buds
- nests of taste receptor cells (15-50 per bud)
- receptor cells replace the old ones ~ every 10 days
Smell : the sense of scents
Airborne chemical molecules enter the nose and circulate through the nasal cavity
Senses of the skin
Touch (pressure) temp (warm and cold) and pain
Perceptual set
A habitual way of perceiving , based on the expectations , needs and beliefs and emotions
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Conditioning
A basic kind of learning that involves associations among environmental stimuli and the organisms behavior
Associative learning
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
Social cognitive learning
- observational learning
- insight learning
Classical conditioning
The process by which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a conditioned response through association with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a similar response
Ivan Pavlov
- digestion in dogs
- dogs nervous system learns association between sound and food
Unconditioned stimulus (us)
Causes natural , innate response not associated with previous learning
Unconditioned response (ur)
Response that US causes
Conditioned stimulus (cs)
An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus several times
Conditioned response (cr)
A response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Occurs after the CS has been associated with the US . Is usually similar to the UR
Acquisition
Initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and be unconditioned stimulus takes place
Discrimination
Tendency to respond differently to 2 or more similar stimuli
Operant conditioning
Process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so , depending on its consequences
Edward thorndike
Puzzle box:
- hungry cat in box
- 1st trials, cat tried several behaviors, scratching.
- pulling string allows escape
- law of effect : responses with satisfying consequences and are more likely to be repeated and vice versa
B.F skinner
- behaviorist
- behavior is followed by consequence
- the consequence modifies the tendency to repeat behavior in future
Operant chamber
Using Thorndikes law of effect as a starting point , skinner developed the operant chamber, or Skinner box , to study operant conditioning
Reinforcement
Process by which a stimulus or even strengthens or increases the probability of the response/ behaviors it follows
Punishment
Process by which a stimulus or even decreases or reduces the probability of the response/behavior that it follows
Primary reinforcers
Inherently reinforcing and typically satisfying a physiological need
-food
Secondary reinforcers
stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers
- money
Positive reinforcement
Response is followed by the presentation of a pleasant stimulus causing an increase in the response/ behavior
- response more Likely occur
Negative reinforcement
Response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus causing an increase in the response/behavior
-response more likely occur
Primary punishes
Stimuli that are inherently punishing
- electric shock or pain
Secondary punishes
Stimuli that have acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers
- demerits or bad grades
Positive punishment
Response is followed by the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus causing a decrease in the response / behavior
- given something you don’t want
Negative punishment
Response is followed by the removal of a pleasant stimulus causing a decrease in the response/ behavior
- something you want is taken away
Continuos reinforcement
Desired response each time it occurs
- behavior always reinforced
Intermittent (partial) reinforcement
Reinforces a response only part of the time
- though this result in slower acquisition in the beginning . It shows greater resistance to extinction later on
Shaping
Operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations
Biological constraints
Built- in limits in ability of animals to learn particular behaviors
Breland and breland (1961)
Raccoons trained to put coins in piggy bank, but start to rub between paws instead of putting them in bank
Instinctive drift
Tendency for a organism to revert to instinctive behavior
Social- cognitive theories
Emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained
- through observation and imitation of other
- positive consequences
- cognitive processes such as plans , expectations and beliefs
Observational learning
Involves learning new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience
Albert Bandura(1960s)
- social learning theory: importance of observing and modeling behaviors , attitudes and emotional reactions of others
- bobo dolls experiments
Social psychology
Is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings , and behaviors are influenced by other people
Sociocultural perspective
Theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in influences from larger social groups
Social norm
Rules that regulates social life , including explicit laws and implicit cultural standards
Role
A given social position that is governed by a set of norms for proper behavior
Culture
A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of people in a community or society and a set of values , beliefs and customs shared by most members of that community
Social influence
Change in overt behavior caused by real or imagined pressure from others
Conformity
Changing ones behavior to match the responses or actions of others ( not necessarily due to pressure )
Compliance
Changing ones behavior in response to a direct request
Obedience
Changing ones behavior in response to a directive from an authority figure
Milgrams experiment
- male ages 20-50
- told they were testing effects of punishment on learning behavior
Results of milgrams experiment
- many desired to stop check subject at 135v
- some continued after reassurance they were not help responsible
- some experienced nervous laughter at screams of pain
- some went to the end 450v
- all questioned experiment
Milgrams study
- factors leading to disobedience
Stanford prison experiment (early 70s)
-Participants were 24 male college students
- guards subjected prisoners to verbal , emotional and physical abuse
- prisoners and guards quickly learned their roles
• roles often have more influence on behavior than personalities
Social cognition
An area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought , memory , perception and beliefs
Attribution theory
The tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the persons disposition
Situational (external )
Cause of behavior- perceived cause is due to environmental circumstances
Dispositions like ( internal)
Cause of behavior- perceived cause is due to the traits of the individual (personality)
Fundamental attribution error
correspondence bias
The tendency to overestimate the impact of person disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the behaviors of others
Self- serving bias
The tendency to take credit for our successes and to blame external factors for our failure
Attitudes
Relatively stable opinion containing beliefs and emotional feelings about people , groups , ideas or activities
Explicit
Attitudes we are aware of and that shape our conscious decisions and actions
Implicit
Attitudes about which we are unaware and that influence our behavior in ways we do not recognize
Cognitive dissonance
State of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds 2 cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent or when a persons belief is incongruent with his. Or her behavior
Cognitive dissonance theory
-festinger and carlsmith (1959)
• students performing as a boring task
• then were asked to tell another student it was interesting- for this they were paid either $1 or $20
Conformity
Changing ones behavior to match the responses or actions of others ( not necessarily due to pressure )
Conformity: asch’s research on group influence
In the experimental condition , 5 confederates went first and each have the same incorrect answer
Groupthink
Tendency for all members of a group to think alike for the sake of harmony and to suppress disagreement
Diffusion of responsibility
When others are present , observers assume someone else will intervene, so individuals refrain from taking action
Bystander effect
Individuals often fail to take action or call for help when they see someone in trouble because they assume that someone else will do so
Deindividuation
The lose of self-awareness or ones own individuality and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
Social identities
Part of a persons self-concept that is based on his or her identification with a nation , religious or political group, , occupation or other social affiliation
Ingroup
People with whom one shares a common identity
Outgroup
Those perceived as different from ones Ingroup ( homogeneity effects)
Ethnic identity
A persons identification with a racial or ethnic group
Acculturation
The process by which members of minority groups come to identify with and feel part of the mainstream culture
Ethnocentrism
- the belief that ones own ethnic group , nation or religion is superior to all others
- aids survival by making people feel attached to their own group and willing to work on groups behalf
Robbers cave
- boys (11-12years) randomly separated into 2 groups
- rattlers and eagles
- competitions fostered hostility between groups
- experimenters created situations requiring cooperation for successes
Stereotypes
- A summary impression of a group , in which a person believes that all members of the group share a common trait(s)
- allows us to quickly process new information and retrieve memories
- distort reality
Prejudice
Prejudgment is an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude towards a group and its members
Components of prejudice:
- ) beliefs ( stereotypes)
- ) emotions ( hostility , envy , fear)
- ) predisposition to act ( to discriminate )
Psychological causes
People inflate own self- worth by disliking groups they see as inferior
Social causes
By disliking others , we feel close to other who are like us ( social pressure to conform to views of friends and family )
Economic causes
Legitimizes unequal economic treatment
Cultural and national causes
Bonds people to their own ethnic or national group and its ways
Discrimination
Behavior direct directed toward individual on basis of membership in particular group
Implication association test (IAT)
- based on the notion that we have implicit attitudes
- used to prevent false reporting related to social desirability bias
- examines strength of automatic associations between concept and attribute
Cognition
All mental activities associated with processing , understanding , remembering , and communication
- ) concepts
- ) problem solving / reasoning
- ) decision making
- ) judgement formation
Elements of cognition
A mental category that groups, objects, people, activities, abstractions / ideas , or qualities having common properties
Basic concepts
Have a moderate number of instances and are easier to acquire
Prototype
An average representation of a concept/ category
Proposition
A meaningful unit, made up of concepts , expressing a single idea
Cognitive schema
An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs , and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world
Subconscious processes
Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary
Non conscious process
Mental process occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness
Reasoning
Drawing of conclusions or inferences from observations , facts , or assumptions
Algorithm
A problem - solving strategy guaranteed to produce a solution even if the user does not know how it works ( formal reasoning )
Heuristic
A rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution ( informal reasoning )
Affect heuristic
Tendency to consult ones emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively
Availability heuristic
The tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is to think of examples for instance
Framing effect
The tendency for people’s choices to be affected by how a choice is presented, or framed , such as whether it is worded in terms of potential losses or gains
Gain- framed messages
Presents beneficial outcomes of absence of negative outcomes
Loss-framed message
Presents negative outcomes or absence of positive outcomes
The fairness bias
Study that most people will not split things unless they are even
The confirmation bias
The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms ones own belief
Cognitive dissonance
A state of tension that occurs when a person holds 2 congnitions that are psychologically inconsistent , or when a persons belief is incongruent with his or her behavior
