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Pschology > Test 3 > Flashcards

Test 3 Flashcards

0
Q

Timbre (complexity)

A

Dimension of auditory experience related to complexity of a pressure wave
-pure tones- sounds with single frequencies

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1
Q

Loudness (amplitude)

A

Dimension of auditory experience related to the intensity of a pressure wave (dB)

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2
Q

Pitch

A

The dimension of auditory experience related to the frequency of a pressure wave

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3
Q

Outer ear

A

Collect sound waves

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4
Q

Middle ear

A
  • eardrum

- hammer

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5
Q

Eardrum

A

Vibrates with same frequency and amplitude of the incoming sound wave

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6
Q

Hammer , anvil and stirrup

A
  • move with each vibration of eardrum , intensity for a vibration
  • stirrups pushes on oval window ( membrane opens into inner ear )
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7
Q

Inner ear

A

Cochlea

Organ of corti

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8
Q

Cochlea

A

Snail snail shaped fluid fill organ in the inner earl

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9
Q

Organ and corti

A

Structure in cochlea containing her hair cells that serve as receptor for hearing

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10
Q

Papillae

A

Knoblike elevations on the tongue , containing the taste buds

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11
Q

Taste buds

A
  • nests of taste receptor cells (15-50 per bud)

- receptor cells replace the old ones ~ every 10 days

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12
Q

Smell : the sense of scents

A

Airborne chemical molecules enter the nose and circulate through the nasal cavity

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13
Q

Senses of the skin

A

Touch (pressure) temp (warm and cold) and pain

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14
Q

Perceptual set

A

A habitual way of perceiving , based on the expectations , needs and beliefs and emotions

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15
Q

Learning

A

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

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16
Q

Conditioning

A

A basic kind of learning that involves associations among environmental stimuli and the organisms behavior

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17
Q

Associative learning

A
  • classical conditioning

- operant conditioning

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18
Q

Social cognitive learning

A
  • observational learning

- insight learning

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19
Q

Classical conditioning

A

The process by which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a conditioned response through association with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a similar response

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20
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A
  • digestion in dogs

- dogs nervous system learns association between sound and food

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21
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (us)

A

Causes natural , innate response not associated with previous learning

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22
Q

Unconditioned response (ur)

A

Response that US causes

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23
Q

Conditioned stimulus (cs)

A

An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus several times

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24
Q

Conditioned response (cr)

A

A response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Occurs after the CS has been associated with the US . Is usually similar to the UR

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25
Q

Acquisition

A

Initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and be unconditioned stimulus takes place

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26
Q

Discrimination

A

Tendency to respond differently to 2 or more similar stimuli

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27
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so , depending on its consequences

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28
Q

Edward thorndike

A

Puzzle box:

  • hungry cat in box
  • 1st trials, cat tried several behaviors, scratching.
  • pulling string allows escape
  • law of effect : responses with satisfying consequences and are more likely to be repeated and vice versa
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29
Q

B.F skinner

A
  • behaviorist
  • behavior is followed by consequence
  • the consequence modifies the tendency to repeat behavior in future
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30
Q

Operant chamber

A

Using Thorndikes law of effect as a starting point , skinner developed the operant chamber, or Skinner box , to study operant conditioning

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31
Q

Reinforcement

A

Process by which a stimulus or even strengthens or increases the probability of the response/ behaviors it follows

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32
Q

Punishment

A

Process by which a stimulus or even decreases or reduces the probability of the response/behavior that it follows

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33
Q

Primary reinforcers

A

Inherently reinforcing and typically satisfying a physiological need
-food

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34
Q

Secondary reinforcers

A

stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers
- money

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35
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

Response is followed by the presentation of a pleasant stimulus causing an increase in the response/ behavior
- response more Likely occur

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36
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

Response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus causing an increase in the response/behavior
-response more likely occur

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37
Q

Primary punishes

A

Stimuli that are inherently punishing

- electric shock or pain

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38
Q

Secondary punishes

A

Stimuli that have acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers
- demerits or bad grades

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39
Q

Positive punishment

A

Response is followed by the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus causing a decrease in the response / behavior
- given something you don’t want

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40
Q

Negative punishment

A

Response is followed by the removal of a pleasant stimulus causing a decrease in the response/ behavior
- something you want is taken away

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41
Q

Continuos reinforcement

A

Desired response each time it occurs

- behavior always reinforced

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42
Q

Intermittent (partial) reinforcement

A

Reinforces a response only part of the time

- though this result in slower acquisition in the beginning . It shows greater resistance to extinction later on

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43
Q

Shaping

A

Operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations

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44
Q

Biological constraints

A

Built- in limits in ability of animals to learn particular behaviors

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45
Q

Breland and breland (1961)

A

Raccoons trained to put coins in piggy bank, but start to rub between paws instead of putting them in bank

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46
Q

Instinctive drift

A

Tendency for a organism to revert to instinctive behavior

47
Q

Social- cognitive theories

A

Emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained

  • through observation and imitation of other
  • positive consequences
  • cognitive processes such as plans , expectations and beliefs
48
Q

Observational learning

A

Involves learning new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience

49
Q

Albert Bandura(1960s)

A
  • social learning theory: importance of observing and modeling behaviors , attitudes and emotional reactions of others
  • bobo dolls experiments
50
Q

Social psychology

A

Is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings , and behaviors are influenced by other people

51
Q

Sociocultural perspective

A

Theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in influences from larger social groups

52
Q

Social norm

A

Rules that regulates social life , including explicit laws and implicit cultural standards

53
Q

Role

A

A given social position that is governed by a set of norms for proper behavior

54
Q

Culture

A

A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of people in a community or society and a set of values , beliefs and customs shared by most members of that community

55
Q

Social influence

A

Change in overt behavior caused by real or imagined pressure from others

56
Q

Conformity

A

Changing ones behavior to match the responses or actions of others ( not necessarily due to pressure )

57
Q

Compliance

A

Changing ones behavior in response to a direct request

58
Q

Obedience

A

Changing ones behavior in response to a directive from an authority figure

59
Q

Milgrams experiment

A
  • male ages 20-50

- told they were testing effects of punishment on learning behavior

60
Q

Results of milgrams experiment

A
  • many desired to stop check subject at 135v
  • some continued after reassurance they were not help responsible
  • some experienced nervous laughter at screams of pain
  • some went to the end 450v
  • all questioned experiment
61
Q

Milgrams study

A
  • factors leading to disobedience
62
Q

Stanford prison experiment (early 70s)

A

-Participants were 24 male college students
- guards subjected prisoners to verbal , emotional and physical abuse
- prisoners and guards quickly learned their roles
• roles often have more influence on behavior than personalities

63
Q

Social cognition

A

An area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought , memory , perception and beliefs

64
Q

Attribution theory

A

The tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the persons disposition

65
Q

Situational (external )

A

Cause of behavior- perceived cause is due to environmental circumstances

66
Q

Dispositions like ( internal)

A

Cause of behavior- perceived cause is due to the traits of the individual (personality)

67
Q

Fundamental attribution error

correspondence bias

A

The tendency to overestimate the impact of person disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the behaviors of others

68
Q

Self- serving bias

A

The tendency to take credit for our successes and to blame external factors for our failure

69
Q

Attitudes

A

Relatively stable opinion containing beliefs and emotional feelings about people , groups , ideas or activities

70
Q

Explicit

A

Attitudes we are aware of and that shape our conscious decisions and actions

71
Q

Implicit

A

Attitudes about which we are unaware and that influence our behavior in ways we do not recognize

72
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

State of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds 2 cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent or when a persons belief is incongruent with his. Or her behavior

73
Q

Cognitive dissonance theory

A

-festinger and carlsmith (1959)
• students performing as a boring task
• then were asked to tell another student it was interesting- for this they were paid either $1 or $20

74
Q

Conformity

A

Changing ones behavior to match the responses or actions of others ( not necessarily due to pressure )

75
Q

Conformity: asch’s research on group influence

A

In the experimental condition , 5 confederates went first and each have the same incorrect answer

76
Q

Groupthink

A

Tendency for all members of a group to think alike for the sake of harmony and to suppress disagreement

77
Q

Diffusion of responsibility

A

When others are present , observers assume someone else will intervene, so individuals refrain from taking action

78
Q

Bystander effect

A

Individuals often fail to take action or call for help when they see someone in trouble because they assume that someone else will do so

79
Q

Deindividuation

A

The lose of self-awareness or ones own individuality and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

80
Q

Social identities

A

Part of a persons self-concept that is based on his or her identification with a nation , religious or political group, , occupation or other social affiliation

81
Q

Ingroup

A

People with whom one shares a common identity

82
Q

Outgroup

A

Those perceived as different from ones Ingroup ( homogeneity effects)

83
Q

Ethnic identity

A

A persons identification with a racial or ethnic group

84
Q

Acculturation

A

The process by which members of minority groups come to identify with and feel part of the mainstream culture

85
Q

Ethnocentrism

A
  • the belief that ones own ethnic group , nation or religion is superior to all others
  • aids survival by making people feel attached to their own group and willing to work on groups behalf
86
Q

Robbers cave

A
  • boys (11-12years) randomly separated into 2 groups
  • rattlers and eagles
  • competitions fostered hostility between groups
  • experimenters created situations requiring cooperation for successes
87
Q

Stereotypes

A
  • A summary impression of a group , in which a person believes that all members of the group share a common trait(s)
  • allows us to quickly process new information and retrieve memories
  • distort reality
88
Q

Prejudice

A

Prejudgment is an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude towards a group and its members

89
Q

Components of prejudice:

A
  1. ) beliefs ( stereotypes)
  2. ) emotions ( hostility , envy , fear)
  3. ) predisposition to act ( to discriminate )
90
Q

Psychological causes

A

People inflate own self- worth by disliking groups they see as inferior

91
Q

Social causes

A

By disliking others , we feel close to other who are like us ( social pressure to conform to views of friends and family )

92
Q

Economic causes

A

Legitimizes unequal economic treatment

93
Q

Cultural and national causes

A

Bonds people to their own ethnic or national group and its ways

94
Q

Discrimination

A

Behavior direct directed toward individual on basis of membership in particular group

95
Q

Implication association test (IAT)

A
  • based on the notion that we have implicit attitudes
  • used to prevent false reporting related to social desirability bias
  • examines strength of automatic associations between concept and attribute
96
Q

Cognition

A

All mental activities associated with processing , understanding , remembering , and communication

  1. ) concepts
  2. ) problem solving / reasoning
  3. ) decision making
  4. ) judgement formation
97
Q

Elements of cognition

A

A mental category that groups, objects, people, activities, abstractions / ideas , or qualities having common properties

98
Q

Basic concepts

A

Have a moderate number of instances and are easier to acquire

99
Q

Prototype

A

An average representation of a concept/ category

100
Q

Proposition

A

A meaningful unit, made up of concepts , expressing a single idea

101
Q

Cognitive schema

A

An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs , and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world

102
Q

Subconscious processes

A

Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary

103
Q

Non conscious process

A

Mental process occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness

104
Q

Reasoning

A

Drawing of conclusions or inferences from observations , facts , or assumptions

105
Q

Algorithm

A

A problem - solving strategy guaranteed to produce a solution even if the user does not know how it works ( formal reasoning )

106
Q

Heuristic

A

A rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution ( informal reasoning )

107
Q

Affect heuristic

A

Tendency to consult ones emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively

108
Q

Availability heuristic

A

The tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is to think of examples for instance

109
Q

Framing effect

A

The tendency for people’s choices to be affected by how a choice is presented, or framed , such as whether it is worded in terms of potential losses or gains

110
Q

Gain- framed messages

A

Presents beneficial outcomes of absence of negative outcomes

111
Q

Loss-framed message

A

Presents negative outcomes or absence of positive outcomes

112
Q

The fairness bias

A

Study that most people will not split things unless they are even

113
Q

The confirmation bias

A

The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms ones own belief

114
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

A state of tension that occurs when a person holds 2 congnitions that are psychologically inconsistent , or when a persons belief is incongruent with his or her behavior

Pschology (3 decks)

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