Final Exam Flashcards
Memory processes involved:
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Encoding
Initial acquisition of information
Storage
Info stored for future use
Retrieval
Use of stored info
Sensory memory
Momentary storage of information less than 2 seconds
Sensory memory
- iconic memory
- echoic memory
Iconic memory
Brief photographic memory
Echoic memory
Brief memory for auditory stimuli
Short term memory
- brief duration 15-30 seconds
- limited capacity
- stored by meaning, not sensory stimuli
Working memory
Involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information, and of information retrieved from long - term memory
Automatic processing
Like space , time , frequency
Miller’s experiment
7+- 2 items ( or chunks of information)
Chunking
Meaningful unit of information that may be composed of smaller units
Rehearsal
Review of practice material while you are learning it; transfers material from short term to long term
Maintenance rehearsal
Rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability In memory
Elaborate rehearsal
Association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable
Deep processing
When encoding information, processing of meaning rather than physical or sensory features of stimulus
Mnemonics
Strategies and tips for improving memory, such as the use of a verse or a formula
Explicit ( declarative)
Memories that are conscious of “ knowing that”
Semantic memory
Memory for general knowledge and facts
Episodic memory
Memory for biographical details of our individual lives ( personal experiences and context they occurred in)
Implicit ( non - declarative )
Memories we are not aware of for the performance of actions of skills
Procedural (“knowing how”)
Memory for performance of actions or skills
Serial position effect
Tendency for recall of the first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list
Primacy
Items presented early in a list are remembered better
Recency
Items presented late in a list are remembered better
Memory retrieval
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store
Explicit memory
Conscious, intentional recollection of am event or item of information
Recall
The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously learned material
Recognition
Ability to identify previously encountered material
Memory
Refers to the capacity to retain and retrieve information, and also to the structures that account for this capacity
Why do we forget?
An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding , storage , or retrieval
Causes to forget:
- brain never encoded it originally
- processing in STM, no transfer to LTM
- overload
- forget insignificant things so we can remember significant things
Decay theory
Theory that information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed
Retrieval failure
Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be assessed
Tip-of - the - tongue (TOT)
Retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue
Interference
Similar item interfere with one another
Retroactive interference
When recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material stored previously
Proactive interference
When previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material
Source misattribution
The inability to distinguish an actual memory of an event from Information you learned about that event elsewhere
Confabulation
Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you
Flashbulb memory
- memory about specific, important events
- heightened emotions
- vivid , virtual snapshot of event
- consistency of details of these memories decreases over time
Misinformation effect
Incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event
Personality
Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts , motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual
Trait
A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving , thinking and feeling
Sigmund Freud
Clinical psychologist First comprehensive theory of personality: 1.) unconscious mind - motives and conflicts 2.) psychosexual stages 3.) defense mechanisms
Exploring the unconscious
A reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes , feelings, and memories
Free association
Patients are asked to say whatever comes to their mind in order to tap the unconscious
Dream interpretation
Interpreting manifest and latent contents of dreams
Id
Part of the personality containing inherited psychic energy (libido) , particularly sexual and aggressive instincts
Ego
Part of the personality that represents reasons , good sense , and rational self control
Superego
Part of the personality that represents conscience, morality , and social standards
Repression
Blocks anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
Projection
Leads people to disguise or try to repress their own threatening impulses or feelings by attributing them to others
Displacement
Shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person , redirecting anger toward a safer outlet
Regression
Leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychological stage
Denial
Occurs when people refuse to admit that something unpleasant is happening , that they have a problem, or that they are feeling a forbidden emotion
Oral
(0-18months)
Pleasure centers on the mouth -sucking , biting , chewing
Anal
(18-36months)
Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination ; coping with demands for control
Phallic
(3-6years)
Pleasure zone is the genitals ; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
Latency
(6 to puberty)
Dormant sexual feelings
Genital
( puberty on)
Maturation of sexual interest
Oedipus complex
In psychoanalysis, a conflict occurring in the phallic ( Oedipal) stage , in which a child desires the parent of the other sex and views the same- sex parent as a rival
Criticism of freud stages
- scientifically untestable
- welcomed women into psychoanalysis
- homosexuality was neither a sin or perversion
Collective unconscious
Universal memories, symbols , and experiences of humankind , represented in the symbols , stories and images that occur across all cultures
Archetypes
Universal, symbolic images that appear in myths , art , stories , and dreams to jungians they reflect the collective unconscious
3 scientific failings of psychodynamic theories
- violating the principle of falsifiability
- drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients
- basing theories of personality development on the retrospective accounts of adults
Myers-Briggs type indicator
Assigns people 1-16 different types, depending on how the individual scores on the dimensions of introverted or extroverted logical or intuitive
Objective tests (inventories)
Standardized questionnaires requiring written responses : typically include scales o. Which people are asked to rate themselves
Core personality traits
- extroversion vs. introversion
- neuroticism vs. emotional stability
- agreeableness vs atangonism
Reciprocal determinism
Two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits
Non-shared environment
Unique aspects of a persons environment and experience that are not shared with family members
Humanistic perspective
A psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth , resilience and the achievement through human potential
Self- actualization
Striving for a life that is meaningful , challenging , and satisfying
Unconditional positive regard
Live or suppose given to another person with no conditions
Conditional positive regard
A situation in which the acceptance and love one receives from significant others is contingent upon ones behavior
Diagnosing mental disorders
Amy behavior or emotional state that causes a person to suffer, is self - destructive ; seriously impairs the persons ability to work or get along with others ; or endangers other or the community
Goals of DSM
- ) describe (400) disorders
2. ) determine how prevalent the disorder is
Concerns about the DSM
- danger of over- diagnosis
- the power of diagnostic labels
- the confusion of serious mental disorders with normal problems
- illusion of objectivity
Generalized anxiety disorder
Continuous state of anxiety marked by feelings of worry and dread , apprehension, difficulties in concentration and sign a of motor tension
Post traumatic stress disorder
Anxiety disorder in which people who has experienced a traumatic or life- threading even has symptoms such as psychic numbing , reliving of the trauma and increasingly physiological arousal
Panic disorder
An anxiety disorder in which a person experiences recurring panic attacks
Phobias
An exaggerated, unrealistic fear of s specific situation, activity or object
Agoraphobia
Set of phobias , often send off by a panic attack , involving the basic fear of being away from a safe place or person
Obsessive -compulsive disorder
An anxiety disorder in which a person feels trapped in repetitive , persistent thoughts (obsessions ) and repetitive , ritualized behaviors ( compulsions) designed to reduce anxiety
Behavior therapy
Exposure to anxiety - inducing stimuli
Cognitive therapy
Change thought patterns and separate realistic/ unrealistic thoughts
Medication
To restore chemical imbalances leading to symptoms
Relaxation techniques
Breathing , exercise
Depression
Mood disorder involving disturbances in emotion ( excessive sadness), behavior ( loss of interest in ones usual activities), cognition ( thoughts of hopelessness ) and body function (fatigue and loss of appetite )
Bipolar disorder
A mood disorder in which episodes of depression and mania (excessive euphoria) occur
Borderline personality disorder
Disorder characterized by extreme negative emotionality and an inability to regulate emotions
Antisocial personality disorder
Characterized by a lifelong pattern of irresponsible , antisocial behavior such as lawbreaking , violence and other impulsive, restless acts
Psychopathy
Fearlessness, lack of empathy , guilt , and remorse ; the use of deceit and cold-heartedness
Dissociative identity disorder ( MPD)
Controversial disorder marked by the appearance within ones person of 2 or more distinct personalities, each with its own name and traits
Psychosis
Extreme mental disturbance involving distorted perceptions and irrational behavior ; it may have psychological or organic causes
Schizophrenia
Delusions, hallucinations , disorganized and incoherent speech , inappropriate behavior and cognitive impairments
Schizophrenia
- bizarre delusions
- hallucinations and heightened sensory awareness
- disorganized, incoherent speech
Delusions
False beliefs that often accompany schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders
Hallucinations
Sensory experiences that occur in the absence of actual stimulation
Schizophrenia causes:
- Brain abnormalities
- drug use while a teenager
- birth complications
Biochemical factors - dopamine levels
