Test 3: Basically the Final Flashcards
Psychoanalytic theories traits:
- discontinuous or continuous?
- Individual differences or the same?
- Nature/nurture?
Discontinuous (stage theories)
Individual: early experiences –> later development
N/N- biology interacts with experience
Freud: Erogenous Zones
areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development
Freud: Psychic Energy
Biologically based, instinctual drives that energize behavior, thoughts and feelings
Erickson’s Psychosocial Development
Development driven by crisis related to age. Crisis is resolved for healthy development (people can be stuck)
Freud place emphasis on early ____ ____
emotional relationships:
- subjective experience
- unconscious mental activity
- foundation for attachment theory
Erickson emphasis on quest for identity in adolescence lead to…
Foundation for research on adolescence
Problems with psychoanalytic theories: Freud and Erickson
Too vague, not operationally defined. Some can’t be observed.
Explain behavior after the fact (post-hoc), hard/impossible to test or replicate
Learning Theorists Emphasize the role of ___ ___ in shaping behavior.
External factor
Learning theorist central development issues
Continuous
Individual difference because children learn differently
____ approaches have been based in learning principles
Therapeutic approaches
Contemporary theorists think that children play
a role in their own development
Social learning theory
Emphasizes observation and imitation rather than reinforcement, as primary mechanisms of development
Social learning theory (Albert Bandura)
Believed that most human learning is inherently social in nature and is based on observation of the behavior of other people
Vicarious reinforcement
Observing someone else receive a reward or punishment
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura’s concept that child-environment influences operation in both directions
Perceived self-efficacy
individual’s beliefs about how effectively he or she can control her or his behavior, thoughts, and emotions in order to achieve a desired goal.
4 important factors of social learning
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation(ARRM)
More likely to model individuals who are
High Status/prestige Mastery/models Similar to subject Ability to affect subject's future High competence, alleged experts, celebrities
Although Learning theories have inspired research and lead to practical applications like systematic desensitization, one drawback of their work is….
Lack of attention to biological influences
Major social cognition theorists
Selman, dodge, dweck
Social COGNITION theorist believe
Children are active processors of social info.
Children have ability to think and reason about their own and other people’s thoughts, feelings, motives and behaviors
Self-Socialization
Children play a very active role in their own socialization through activity preferences, friendship choices, etc.
Dodge emphasized role of ____ processes in social behavior
cognitive
Why do some children have hostile attribution bias?
physical abuse, see ambiguous actions as hostile
6 steps in decision making
- Encode Cues
- Interpret Cues
- Clarify goals
- Review possible action
- Decided on an action
- Act on decision
What accounts for cultural differences in children’s aggressive behavior worldwide?
Cultural differences in tendency to attribute hostile intent
Central Development Issues: Bioecological model is criticized for
lack of biological factors
Bioecological model
Considers the child’s environment as composed of series of nested structures that impact development
Child Maltreatment
intentional abuse or neglect that endangers the well being of anyone under the age of 18
__-___% of NOLA youth have experience multiple traumas. What are the most common?
55-84%; community violence and loss of a loved one
__% report 3+ Traumas
__% report multiple traumas
55%
84%
Trauma in the brain
Temporal Lobes are inactive/under active
Trauma in schools
What’s wrong with students –> What do they need, what happened
Emotions are a combination of __ and __ responses to thoughts or experiences
physiological and cognitive
5 components of emotions
Neural responses Appraisals Physiological factors Expressions Action
Discrete Emotions theory
Emotions innate early in life, packaged with distinctive bodily/facial reactions
Functional Perspective (emotions)
Emotions manage relationships between self and environment, help achieve goal
Vary based on social environment
Self-conscious emotion
related to our sense of self and consciousness of other’s reactions to us
Discontinuous growth: requires understanding of self as separate by…
1.5-3 years
Self-conscious emotions have a strong ___ influence and examples include…
Cultural influence
Guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride
Social referencing
12 months
Using caregiver’s or other adult’s facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations
Labeling emotions develops from __ years to adolescence, and supports the development of ____
2 years
Social Competence
Children’s understanding of the difference between real and fake emotions improves considerably from ages…
3-5 years
Display rules
Social group’s norms about when where and how much one should show emotions, and when and where one should mask their emotions. Growing understanding from preK to elementary school.
Emotional Regulation develops gradually over childhood as a set of conscious and unconscious process and is use to ______.
Involves ____ parts of brain.
monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions.
PFC and Limbic Systems
Executive functions support self-regulation
Deliberate control of thought, emotion, action. Goal oriented behavior.
Cognitive control
planning evaluation
behavioral control
action/executive function
Marshmallow.
Less effective ages vs. most effective ages
<5 years
~8-13 years
Co-regulation
Caregivers provide needed external comfort or distraction to help child reduce her or his distress
Self-comforting behaviors
Repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation
Self-distraction
Looking away from upsetting stimulus in order to regulate arousal
Cognitive strategies
Use of problem-solving, changing thoughts or to adjust to emotionally difficult situations
Temperament is present from ___ and influence by
infancy
Genes and environment
Temperament
CONSTITUTIONALLY BASED individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrates consistency across situations as well as relative stability over time
Temperament due to the work of
Thomas and Chess
Easy __%
Slow to Warm__%
Difficult__%
Un-categorized__%
E 40%
StWU 15%
D 10%
UC 35%
3 other measures of temperament
- Heart Rate (Vagal tone)- how effectively vagus nerve modulates heart rate in accordance with breathing
- Left Frontal Lobe- EEG, approach behavior, + affect, sociability
- Cortisol Reactivity- cortisol in given situation
Behavioral inhibition
Temperamentally based style of responding characterized by the tendency to be particularly fearful and restrained when dealing with novel or stressful situations
Goodness of Fit
Degree to which an individual’s temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment
Differential Susceptibility
The same temperament characteristic that puts some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh home environment also causes them to blossom when their home environment is positive
Socialization
The process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future role in their particular culture
Affects children directly and indirectly. Affects children’s emotional development and social competence
Low parental support
Low social competence.
High parent support
Good regulation of emotions
Emotional Coaching
Parents discuss and help children learn ways of coping and expressing emotions appropriately
Emotions: USA vs. Tamang in Nepal
When parents in USA dismiss emotions, less social competence, but in Nepal, value calmness, negative to anger, but children fine socially
Mental Heath: internalizing vs. externalizing
Internalizing: emotions, stress levels
Externalizing: relationships with family and peers
Stress
Physiological reaction to a change in environment.
Toxic Stress
Experience of overwhelming levels of stress without support from adults to help mitigate the effects of that stress
high levels of ACEs (Adverse Childhood Experience) leads to
Depressive symptoms
Depression in children Symptoms: ? \_\_\_% heritable Environment: ? \_\_% prior to adolescence
Loss interest in activities, changes in weight/appetite/sleep, loss of energy, feeling worthless and sad, trouble concentrating, thoughts about death
40% heritable
Low parental sensitivity/support
3%
Rumination (cognitive factor in depression)
focus on negative emotions without trying to improve the situation
Co-Rumination (cognitive factor in depression)
extensively discussing and self-disclosing emotional problems with another person
After adolescence, __% boys and __%+ girls ages 15-18 with depression. An addition 10% US youth have less serious symptoms
4% boys
12%+ girls
Anxiety in Children
Persistent or excessive fear, difficult to control worry, long-lasting, avoid fearful situation, impairs functioning. More prevalent in girls
Anxiety:
__% heritable, temperament
__% total children
30% heritable
7% children
Treating internalizing disorders
SRIs
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Attachment
emotional bond with special person enduring across space and time. Usually discussed in regard to relation between infants and caregivers, attachments can also occur in adulthood
Who thinks infant mother bond classically conditioned
Behaviorist theory of attachment
Harlow’s Attachment
Cloth and wire monkey, due to security provided by caregiver
Attachment theory based on work of ___.
John Bowlby, biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers, evolutionarily adaptive
Secure base
presence of a trusted caregiver gives a child security to explore environment
Internal working model of attachment looks at child’s
mental representation of self and attachment figures.
Attachment measured by
Observing child’s behavior with caregiver. Interviewing caregiver about behaviors and quality of relationship
Who came up with those long episodes and events to give empirical support for Bowlby’s attachment theory?
Mary Ainsworth
Securely Attached Children
Show better social adjustment, better social skills, good emotional expression and communication
Insecure avoidant children
inhibited emotions, do not seek comfort from others
Children in ___ and ___ least likely to remain in physical proximity of their mothers.
Peru and Colombia
Japanese insecurely attached children are ___ instead of __-
insecure/resistant instead of insecure/avoidant
Parental sensitivity
Caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children.
Adult attachment models
working models of attachment in adulthood that are believed to be based upon adults’ perception of their own childhood experiences
Attachment environmental influences
Can give mothers training to overcome insecure attachment or depressive symptoms
Biological Influences
Genetic influences- serotonin and dopamine systems. Genetic makeup and attachment found to last in adulthood.
Self-concept
Conceptual system made up of one’s thoughts and attitudes about oneself including
1) internal characteristics
2) physical being
3) social characterstics
8 months self concept
Distinct, linked to attachment
18-20 months self recognition
rouge test (not if ASD), not uniquely human
Argument against self concept
Despite visual self-concept, still have little mental self-concept
Argument for self-concept
Language, emotions, social child
Personal Fable (early teens)
uniqueness of one’s own thoughts and feelings
Imaginary audience (mid-teens)
belief that everyone is over focused on appearance and behaviors.
Self-esteem
Overall evaluation of worth of self and feelings she or he has about evaluation.
Test Yourself: in comparison with young and middle adolescents, older adolescents are better able to…
Integrate contradictions in themselves into a coherent whole
most likely to succeed at rouge test?
The oldest participant
Cultural Self-Esteem
Western: individual
Asian: Welfare of larger group
When does identity achievement occur?
with the integration of various aspects of the self into a coherent whole that is stable over time and across events.
Identities develop
During teens, everyone has multiple, some externally imposed
Changes in family structure
more cohabitating and single parents
Single parents
More below poverty line (41%), less time for children, household responsibilities, less likely to read to children
Children living with grandparents
10%, 6% in 2014 as primary caregiver. Financial challenges due to limited income, related to emotional/behavioral problems.
Why are families smaller?
Women delay pregnancies, increased access to birth control
Fluid family structure
50% divorce, related to child behavior problems
Divorced:
__% with only divorced mom
__% with only divorced dad
What makes a difference in divorced children?
7% mom
2% dad
Quality of contact with noncustodial parent
__% children live with stepparents.
5%
Simple stepfamily
New stepparent joins another parent and children
Complex stepfamily
Addition of stepparent and step siblings
Negative outcome
Conflict with stepparents common, especially in preteen girls
Positive outcome
may gain trusted adult in life
% Same-sex couples in 2010 raising kids
19%
Mothers spend __ more hours with children.
1.5
Fathers in Sweden Malaysia and India do not
play with their children.
Family dynamics
How all family members interact with and relate to one another
Process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their culture
Socialization
set of strategies and behaviors parents use to teach children how to behave appropriately
Discipline
Effective discipline leading to permanent change in child’s behavior
Internalization
About 1/2 children in what 3 states use corporal punishment
Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi
Siblings Effect
Social skills, sharing, rivals, quality of relationship determined by family and culture
What child factors contribute to parenting
- Behavior
- Personality
- Temperament
- Attractiveness
Average American Family spends $____/child per year
$14,000
Since 1998
50%+ moms work
Low SES benefit from
Closeness to parents, daycare
Friendship: What girls want
More closeness, more likely to co-ruminate, more upset when friend betrays
Friendships: Good and Bad
Good- validations, support, social skills
Bad- aggression and drugs
Who said children are more open and spontaneous expressing idea with peers?
Piaget
Who said children learn and develop cognitively through peer interactions?
Vygotsky
Cliques
Friendship groups children voluntarily form or join. 3-10 children, same sex and race. Boys groups larger. Members similar.
Cliques in early vs. late teens
Early- focus on conformity to group, value on popularity
Late- conformity to norms declines, autonomy
Crowds
Adolescents with similar stereotyped reputations. Membership assigned by peer-group consensus.
Negative effects of cliques
Gangs and bullying
Physical bully:
Verbal:
Social:
Cyber:
P: 6%
V: 31%
S: 19%
C: 11%
Measure of peer acceptance called
Sociometric status
Sociometric status 5 groups
- Popular
- Rejected
- Neglected
- Average
- Controversial
Sociometric status
Attractiveness, athleticism, high-status friends, social behavior, personality, cognitions about others, goals
Voluntary actions intended to benefit other
prosocial behavior
Empathy
Emotional response to another’s state or condition
Sympathy
Feeling of concern for another in reaction to their emotional state or condition
Altruism
Helping others for reasons initially include empathy or sympathy, and at later ages, due to moral principles
___ months: distress when see others in distress
14 months
__-__ months: Sharing
18-25 months
__ - ___ years prosocial behaviors increase, especially towards peers
2-4 years
Biology- prosocial
Evolutionary predisposition for prosocial behavior in humans (important for survival)
Genetics- increases with age, associated with oxytocin, identical twins more similar in prosocial behavior/empathy than fraternal twins
Temperment
Socialization-prosocial
Parents, peers
Culture- prosocial: Kenya, Mexico, Philippines, china
Less prosocial to non-relatives, more helping, sharing, supporting families and communities
Culture- prosocial:
US, India, Japan
Less emphasis on helping, sharing, supporting families.
More prosocial behavior towards non-relatives
Reactive Aggression
Emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one’s perception that other people’s motive are hostile.
Proactive Aggression
Unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire
First display of aggression __ months
12
Physical aggression appears
18 months
As child communicates, physical aggression decreases
2-4 years
Antisocial Bio- Cognitive- Social- Culture-
Bio- genes, poor impulse, low empathy, high testosterone, neurological deficit
Cognitive- hostile attribute, temperament
Social- aggressive friends, poor parenting
Culture- Low SES
Age onset ODD
6 years
Age onset CD
9 years
