Test 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Hemoglobin + oxygen =
A
Oxyhemoglobin
2
Q
Hemoglobin saturation
A
The percentage of heme units in a hemoglobin molecule that contains bound oxygen
3
Q
Environmental factors affecting hemoglobin synthesis
A
- Po2 of blood
- Blood pH
- Temperature]
- Metabolic activity within RBC’s
4
Q
Hypoxemia/Hypoxia
A
Oxygen levels below 90%
5
Q
Blood levels below 80% may
A
Compromise organ function
6
Q
Each bound oxygen
A
Increases the efficiency of binding another oxygen molecule
7
Q
Small changes in Po2 leads to
A
large changes in bound oxygen
8
Q
Active muscle recieve
A
more oxygen because of larger differences in Po2
9
Q
By regulation, commercial airlines cannot fly above
A
10,000 feet without pressurized or supplemental oxygen
10
Q
Cabin pressure is maintained at the equivalent of
A
8500 ft
11
Q
As blood pH decreases oxygen saturation
A
decreases
12
Q
Bohr effect
A
Active muscles produce acids as a waste product
13
Q
Hemoglobin molecule changes shape, affecting its ability to
A
bind oxygen
14
Q
Carbon dioxide is the primary compound responsible for the
A
Bohr Effect
15
Q
Carbonic anhydrase, present in RBCs, catalyzes carbon dioxide and water to
A
Carbonic acid
16
Q
Temperature increase =
A
Hemoglobin releases more oxygen
17
Q
Temperature decrease =
A
hemoglobin holds oxygen more tightly
18
Q
Temperature effects significant only in
A
active tissues that are generating large amounts of heat
19
Q
Fetal hemoglobin
A
Allows for oxygen to be pulled across the placental barrier to bind to fetal hemoglobin
20
Q
Fetal hemoglobin has a
A
higher oxyhemoglobin saturation at lower Po2 levels
21
Q
CO2 in bloodstream can be carrier three ways
A
1) Converted to carbonic acid (70%)
2) Converted to hemoglobin within red blood cells
3) Dissolved in plasma
22
Q
Carbonic acid formation
A
70% CO2 transported as carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Which dissolves into H+ and bicarbonate
23
Q
Bicarbonate ions
A
Move into plasma by exchange mechanism (Chloride shift) that takes in CI ions without using ATP
24
Q
By raising or lowering the ventilation rate
A
The CNS can alter CO2 and thus change H+ concentration
25
Local regulation of gas transport and alveolar function
Rising PCO2 levels relax smooth muscle in arterioles and capillaries. Increase blood flow
26
Coordination of lung perfusion and alveolar ventilation
- Shifting blood flow helps direct air to bronchioles with high PCO2
- PCO2 levels control bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation
27
Regulation of respiration is done by
Respiratory rhythmicity centers of the medulla oblongata and pons
28
Diffusion at alveoli highly regulated by brain to
Maintain oxygen supply to body's tissues and removal of carbon dioxide
29
VRG
responsible for control of accessory breathing muscles
30
DRG
Primarily responsible for inspiration
31
Pontine respiratory group (PRG)
Assures precise control of inhalation and exhalation
32
More on Pontine respiratory group
- Control depth and rate of inspiration
| - Reciprocal inhibition assures precise control of inspiration and respiration
33
Pneumotaxic center
Negative regulation of the DRG, promotes active exhalation
34
Apneustic center
Constant stimulation of the DRG controlling degree of inhalation
35
Quiet breathing Respiratory reflex arc
- Brief activity in DRG. Stimulates inspiratory muscles
| - DRG neurons become inactive. Allowing passive exhalation
36
Forced Breathing Respiratory reflex arc
- Increased activity in DRG. Stimulates VRG which activates accessory inspiratory muscles
- After inhalation. VRG neurons stimulate active exhalation
37
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
- Leading cause of death for babies 1-12 months
- Typically between midnight and 9 am
- Cause under debate. (genetic, exposure to cigarette smoke, premature birth)
38
Function of both cough reflex and sneeze reflex
Dislodge foreign matter or irritating material from respiratory passages
39
Cough receptors
Widespread, rapidly adapting sensory receptors
40
Afferent nerves of cough reflex
Vagal nerves, CN X
41
Cough center
Centered in the solitary nucleus of the medulla oblongata *Target of cough medicine*
42
Efferent nerves of cough reflex
Phrenic and spinal motor nerves
43
Effector muscles of cough reflex
Glottis, external intercostal, diaphragm, major inspiratory and expiratory muscles
44
Components of the cough reflex
1) During cough about 2.5L air inspired, epiglottis closes, and vestibular folds and vocal cords close tightly to trap inspired air in the lung
2) Abdominal muscles contract to force abdominal contents up against the diaphragm; the muscles of expiration contract forcefully
3) Vestibular folds, vocal cords, and epiglottis open suddenly due to air pressure reaching 100 mmHg. Air rushes from lungs at high velocity, carrying foreign particles with it
45
Where are cough receptors?
Posterior wall of trachea, pharynx, and carina of trachea
46
Source of irritation for sneeze reflex
Nasal passages
47
Action potentials for sneeze reflex conducted along
Facial nerve
48
Why do we not sneeze as much during sleep
Isn't as much airflow to stir up irritating particles, so they aren't exposed to stimulants.
Fewer neurotransmitters are being produced, reducing neurotransmitters being sent to the brain
49
Brief overview of coughing reflex
- Irritation of trachea, bronchi, etc.
- Vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves
- Closed glottis
- Reflex, voluntary
50
Brief overview of sneezing reflex
- Irritation of nasal mucosa
- Trigeminal nerve
- opened glottis
- Reflex
51
Reduced capacity for air exchange can cause an older person to become
"short of breath" upon exertion
52
Lung parenchyma
Portion of lung involved with gas transfer
53
What can gradually accumulate in lymph nodes and lungs?
Carbon, dust, and pollution
54
Decrease in elastic connective tissue in lungs and thoracic cavity wall due to aging can cause
Lungs to become more compliant, thoracic cavity becomes less compliant due to calcification
55
Major organs of digestive system
Oral Cavity, Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
56
Accessory organs of digestive system
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
57
Main functions of digestive system
- Ingestion
- Mechanical processing (mastication)
- Digestion
- Secretion
- absorption
- Excretion (defecation)
58
Lining of the digestive tract also safeguards surrounding tissue against:
- Corrosive effects of digestive acids and enzymes
- Mechanical stresses, such as abrasion
- Bacteria ingested with food or that reside in digestive tract
59
Food is digested in
six to eight hours
60
Waste is excreted after
24-72 hours
61
Foregut pathway
Begins with the abdominal esophagus and ends just inferior to the major duodenal papilla. Midway along the descending part of the duodenum
62
Foregut Includes
Abdominal esophagus, stomach, duodenum (superior to the major papilla), liver, pancreas, and gallbladder
63
Midgut pathway
Begins just inferior to the major duodenal papilla in the descending part of the duodenum, and ends at the junction between the proximal two-thirds and distal one-third of the transverse colon
64
Midgut Includes
Duodenum (inferior to the major duodenal papilla), jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and the right two-thirds of the transverse colon
65
Hindgut pathway
Begins just before the left colic flexure (The junction between the proximal two-thirds and distal one-third of the transverse colon) and ends midway through the anal canal
66
Hindgut includes
Left one-third of the transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and upper part of the anal canal
67
Arterial divisions of gut tube
Foregut - Celiac trunk
Midgut - Superior mesenteric
Hindgut - inferior mesenteric
68
Venuous divisions of gut tube
Forgut - individual veins
Midgut - superior mesenteric
Hindgut - inferior mesenteric
69
Nerve supply divisions of gut tube
Foregut - T5-T9
Midgut - T10-T11
Hindgut - T12
Pelvic - L1-L2
70
Genioglossus
Major muscle responsible for protruding (or sticking out) the tongue
71
Styloglossus
muscle that elevates and retracts the tongue
72
Vertical muscle
Flattens the tongue
73
Geniohyoid muscle
moves the hyoid bone during swallowing
74
hyoglossus
depresses and retracts tongue and makes the dorsum more convex
75
Lingual papillae
- Vallate papilla (up to 100 taste buds)
- foliate papillae
- fungiform papilla
- filliform papillae (no taste buds)
76
The primary function of teeth is
to chew food (masticate)
77
Types of teeth
- incisors
- Cuspids (canines)
- Bicuspids (premolars)
- Molars
78
Dental formula
2.1.2.3
| incisors,cuspids,bicuspids,molars
79
Total number of teeth
32
80
Wisdom teeth
vestigial third molars that helped human ancestors to grind plant tissue
81
Dentin
Mineralized, acellular matric similar to that of bone
82
Pulp cavity
Recieved blood vessels and nerves through the root canal
83
Root
Each tooth sits in a bony socket (alveolus) with a layer of cementum covering dentin of the root.
Providing protection and anchoring periodontal ligament
84
Crown
- Exposed portion of tooth
- Projects beyond soft tissue of gingivs
- Dentin covered by layer of enamel
85
Deciduous teeth
diphodonty
86
By the time the embryo is eight weeks old
there are ten teeth buds on the upper and lower arches
87
Permanent teeth replacements develop from
the same tooth germs as the primary teeth
88
Stages of tooth morphogenesis
- Initiation
- morphogenesis
- Differentiation and mineralization
- Root formation and eruption
89
Placode
Earliest stage of tooth formation
90
Enamel knots
Marks the location where the tooth cusps will form
91
Odontoblasts
secrete dentin
92
Ameloblasts
secrete enamel
93
osterblasts
secrete bone
94
cementoblasts
secrete cementum
95
3 pairs of salivary glands
- Parotid salivary gland
- sublingual salivary gland
- submandibular salivary gland
96
Parotid salivary glands
- Inferior to zygomatic arch
- Produce serous secretion, enzyme salivary amylase
- Drained by parotid duct, which empty into vestibule at second molar
97
Salivary amylase
Breaks down starches
98
Sublingual salivary glands
- Covered by mucous membrane of floor of mouth
- produce mucous scretion which acts as a buffer and lubricant
- Empty through sublingual ducts on either side of lingual frenulum
99
Submandibular salivary glands
- Located in the floor of mouth within mandibular groove
- Secrete buffersm glycoproteins (mucins), and salivary amylase
- Account for majority of salivary volume
- empty through the submandibular ducts which open immediately posterior to teeth on either side of lingual fenulum
100
Functions of saliva
- Lubracating the mouth
- Moistening and lubricating materials in the mouth
- Dissolving chemicals that stimulate taste buds and provide sensory information
- Carries the chemical cues of taste
- Initiating digestion of complex carbohydrates by the enzyme salivary amylase and lipase
101
Composition of Saliva
- 99.4% water
| - 0.6% of other
102
0.6 percent of saliva includes
- Electrolytes (Na+, Cl-, And HCO3-)
- Buffers
- Glycoproteins (mucins)
- Antibodies (IgA)
- Enzymes
- Waste products
103
Swallowing involves co-ordinated activity of muscles of
oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus
104
Swallowing, by definition, involves
passage of bolus of food (solid/liquid) from the oral cavity to stomach via the pharync and esophagus
105
Whole swallowing process is partly under
voluntary control and partly reflexive in nature
106
Voluntary control of swallowing involves
Control of jaw, tongue, degree of constriction and length of pharynx and closure of laryngeal inlet
107
Four stages of swallowing
Oral/Buccal
Pharyngeal
Esophageal
Stomach
108
What phase of respiration does swallowing occur?
The expiratory phase
109
Why is swallowing considered a protective phenomenon?
Helps in clearing food material left in vestibule
110
After a successful swallow
The rhythm of respiration is reset
111
Oral phase function
Involves breaking down of food in the oral cavity
112
Oral phase bolus formation
TOngue and elevators of lower jaw play vital role in bolus formation by action of its intrinsic muscles which alters its shape. Extrinsic muscle changes its position within the oral cavity thereby helping in chewing the food by dental occlusion
113
Occlusal action of lips
Helps create an effective seal preventing the bolus from dribbling out of oral cavity
114
Mucin in the saliva
Helps bind the bolus together
115
Contraction of soft palate
Prevents nasal regurgitation, also prevents premature movement of bolus into the oropharynx
116
Pharyngeal phase
- Reflexive
- Elevation of the larynx and folding of epiglottis direct bolus past closed glottis
- Contraction of diaphragm is inhibited making simultaneous breathing and swallowing impossible
- Soft palate remains elevated in order to seal off the nasopharynx
- Epiglottis protects the airway
117
Importance of laryngeal elevation during pharyngeal stage
- Narrows laryngeal inlet
- Ensures better sealing of the laryngeal inlet by the downturned epiglottis
- Laryngeal elevation also contributes to dilation of pharynx
118
Esophageal phase
- Reflexive
| - Begins as contraction of pharyngeal muscles forces the bolus through the entrance to the esophagus
119
Nausea
Unpleasant subjectibe sensation that most people have experienced at some point in their lives and usually recognize as a feeling of impending vomiting in the epigastrum or throat
120
Retching
Muscular activity of the abdomen and the thorax, often voluntary, leading to forced inspiration against a closed mouth and glottis without oral discharge of gastric contents
121
Vomiting
Largely involuntary act of forcefully expelling gastric or intestinal content through the mouth
122
Location of the Vomiting center, the chemorecptor trigger zone (CTZ)
Situated bilaterally in medulla
123
Sensory impulses from irritated parts of GIT or other organs are transmitted to CTZ through
Vagus and sympathetic afferent fibers
124
Antiemetic medications ofter target the CTZ to
completely inhibit or greatly reduce vomiting
125
During ejection of vomitus
- Esophagus relaxed throughout
- Glottis closed
- Larynx and hyoid bone drawn upward and foward
- respiration inhibited
- throat dilated to allow free exit of vomitus
- Entry of vomitus into nasopharynx is prevented by elevation of soft palate
126
Bolus of food is moved by
Visceral smooth muscle tissue of digestive tract
127
Peristaltic motion
1) Circular muscles contract behind bolus while circular muscles ahead of bolus relax
2) Longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus contract shortening adjacent segments
3) Wave of contraction in circular muscles forces the bolus foward
128
Wall of esophagus has three layers
Mucosal
Submucosal
Muscularis
129
The esophagus joins
pharynx to stomach
130
The esophagus enters the abdominopelvic cavity through
the esophageal hiatus
131
What is esophagus innervated by
fibers from the esophageal plexus
132
How long is esophagus
25-30 cm long, C6-T11
133
Mucosa of esophagus contains
nonkeratinized and stratified squamous epithelium
134
Submucosa of esophagus contains
glands which produce mucous secretion that reduces friction between bolus and esophageal lining
135
Mucosa and submucosa form
large folds that extend the length of the esophagus
136
Muscularis mucosae consists of
irregular layer of smooth muscle
137
Cardia
Where contents of the esophagus empty into the stomach
138
fundus
formed by upper curvature of the organ
139
Body
Main,central region of stomach
140
Pylorus
Lower section of the organ that facilitates emptying the contents into the small intestine (gatekeeper)
141
Lesser omentum reduced to the
Hepatogastric ligament
142
Falciform ligament
stabilizes the position of the liver and diaphragm
143
Greater omentum
first tissue observed when opening the abdominal cavity
144
stomach has 3 layers of muscle
- Longitudinal muscle layer
- Circular muscle layer
- Oblique muscle layer overlying mucosa
145
Rugae
Can expand up to 50 times and return to original size
146
Simple columnar epithelium is a secretory sheet that lines all portions of stomach that
- Produces mucus that covers interior surface of stomach
- gastric pits, shallow depressions that open onto the gastric surface
- Mucous calls, at the base, or neck, or each gastric pit, actively divide, replacing superficial cells
147
Parietal cells
Secrete HCL
148
G cells
Produce gastrin
149
Chief cells
release pepsinogen and gastric lipase (Zymogenic cell)
150
Liver blood composition
- 1/3 arterial blood from hepatic artery proper
- 2/3 venous blood from hepatic portal vein, originating in esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and most of the large intestine
151
Liver lobules function as the
basic functional units
152
Hexagonal cross section of liver shows
Six portal areas (portal triads) one at each corner of lobule
153
each lobule consists of
portal vein, hepatic artery brahcn and bile canaliculi
154
Hepatocytes
Adjust circulating levels of nutrients through selective absorption and secretion
Form series of irregular plates like wheel spokes
155
Kupffer cells
Located in sinusoidal lining..
| Function as part of monocyte-macrophage system. Also store heavy metal and iron (heme)
156
Bile duct system
Secretes bile fluid into a network of narrow channels (bile canaliculli) between opposing membranes of adjacent liver cells
157
Common Bile duct
Formed by union of cystic duct and common hepatic duct
158
Pathway of common bile duct
Towards the duodenum after meeting the pancreatic duct at the duodenal ampulla
159
Cystic duct leads to
gall bladder
160
Pancreatic islet cells are
endocrine glands
161
Acinar cells
Secrete digestive enzymes
162
Duodenum
Primary site of iron absorption and the place where most chemical digestion occurs
163
Brunner's glands
Compound tubular submucosal glands found in the duodenum. Distinguishes first part of duodenum with rest, know this
164
Function of Brunner's glands
- Protect duodenum from acidic content of chyme (containing bicarbonate)
- Provide an alkaline condition for the intestinal enzymes to be active, thus enabling absorption
- Lubricate the intestinal walls with mucus
165
During fasting
villi are inactive and lie flat
166
Lacteal
lymphatic capillaryu that absorbs dietary fats in the villi of the small intestine: shylomicrons
167
4 types of cells make up the lining of the small intestine
- Paneth cells
- Goblet cells
- Enterocytes
- Enteroendocrine cells
168
Paneth cells
Secrete several anti0microbial compounds and other compounds that are known to be important in immunity and host-defense
169
Goblet
Secrete mucins, posssess microvilli
170
Enterocytes
intestinal absorptive cells, contain microvilli
171
Enteroendocrine cells
Hormone and regulatory molecule secretion
172
Primary function of large intestine
Absorption of water and electrolytes and the storage of undigested material until it can be expelled from the body as feces
173
Ileocecal valve
Communication of cecum with small intestine
174
Excitatory factors of cecum
- pressure and chemical irritation relac sphincter and excite peristalisis
- Fluidity of contents promotes emptying
175
Inhibitory factors of cecum
Pressure or chemical irritation in cecum inhibits peristalisis of ileum and excites sphincter
176
Haustra
Series of pouches formed by wall of colon which permit expansion and elongation of colon
177
Taeniae coli
Formed by haustra. Three separate longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscle on the outside of colon
178
Inferior mesenteric artery
Terminal branch arises and forms the superior rectal artery and supplies the upper rectum
179
Internal iliac
Middle and rectal artery arise from this
180
Lingual lipase
Secreted by circumvallate and foliate papillae by the Ebner's glands. Starts digestion of the lipids/fats
181
Salivary amylase
Produced by the salivary glands, begins carbohydrate digestion (ptyalin)
182
Haptocorrin (R factor)
Produced by salivary glands, protects vitamin B12 from stomach acid. In the duodenum intrinsic factor (IF) binds the B12 after its release from haptocorrin by digestion. Without IF only 1% of vitamin B12 is absorbed
183
Acidity in stomach also
1) Kills most microorganisms
2) Denatures most proteins
3) Breaks down plant cell walls and animal connective tissues
184
What drugs can be absorbed through the mucous lining?
Ethanol and aspirin
185
Parietal Cells
Secrete HCL - but HCL is not made in the cell
186
G cells
produce gastrin - most abundant in the pyloric antrum. Stimulates parietal and chief cells to speed digestion
187
Delta cells (D cells)
Release comatostatin, a hormone that inhibits release of gastrin. slows the digestive process
188
Three phases of gastric control
Cephalic phase
gastric phase
intestinal phase
189
CCK - Cholecystokinin
Triggered by fats and carbohydrates
Triggers release of bile and pancreatic enzymes
a hunger suppressant
190
GIP - Gastric inhibitory peptide
Triggered by fats and carbohydrates
| Stimulates duodenal gland activity
191
Secretin
Triggered by lower pH
Triggers release of bile and pancreatic enzymes
reduces gastric mobility and secretion
192
gastroenteric reflex
stimulation of the stomach by stretching triggers release of gastrin. An acidic pH in the duodenum inhibits release of further stomach contents
193
Gastrocolic reflex
Stimulation of the stomach causing increased activity in the colon
194
Duodenal-colic reflex (gastroileal reflex)
Stimulation of iliocecal valve and mass movement in the colon by the presence of food or stretch in the duodenum
195
Borborygmi (Stomach grownling)
Functionally, intiates hunger response, but also serves to flush bacterial and food waste from the intestine
196
Hunger Pangs
Usually do not begin until 12 to 24 hours after the last ingestion of food
197
What does the liver perform or regulate
- Composition of circulating blood
- Nutrient metabolism
- Waste product removal
- Amino acid synthesis
- Nutrient storage
- Hormone synthesis
- Drug inactivation
- Bile production
198
Carbohydrate metabolism
Liver stabilizes glucose levels at 90mg/dL
199
If glucose levels are low
Hepatocytes break down glycogen (glycogenolysis) and synthesize glucose (gluconeogenesis)
200
If glucose levels are too high
Glucose is stored as glycogen (glucogenesis) or use it to syntheesize lipids
201
The liver regulates circulating levels of
triglycerides, fatty acids, and cholesterol
202
The liver performs
1) Cholesterol synthesis
2) Lipogenesis
3) production of triglycerides
4) lipoproteins synthesis
203
If lipid/cholesterol levels decline
the liver breaks down stored fats
204
If lipid/cholesterol levels in circulatory system rise
lipids become stored as fat
205
Deamination
Action of liver which removes amino acids from larger molecules
206
Ammonia, a product of deamination is converted to what?
urea, which is then extracted by kidneys
207
Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)
Enzyme in liver cells that breaks down or metabolizes most alcohol
208
Alcohol flush syndrome
Buildup of acetaldehyde
209
Vitamin and nutrient storage of liver
```
Stores fat soluble vitamins:
A (1-2 year supply)
D(1-4 month supply)
E(3-5 year supply)
K
Copper and Iron
```
210
What type of synthesis involved with liver?
Amino acids, Insulin-like growth factor, hepcidin, thrombopoietin, albumin
211
What does liver help in removal of?
Antibodies and excess hormones
212
Drug inactivation with liver
Cytochrome P-450 is the primary enzyme regulating drug breakdown
213
Function of bile salts
Emulsify large lipid droplets and promote the absorption of lipids by small intestine
214
Carbohydrases
break bonds between simple sugars
215
Maltase, sucrase, lactase
- Targets maltose, sucrose, lactose
- Found in brush border of small intestine
- Carbohydrase
216
Pancreatic alpha-enzyme
- Carbohydrase
- Targets complex carbohydrates
- Secreted from Pancreas
217
Salivary amylase
- Carbohydrase
- Targets complex carbohydrates
- Secreted from salivary glands
218
Haustral contractions in the colon
roughly once every 25 minutes
219
Peristalsis in the colon
Slow movement of material through the colon
220
Mass movement in colon (Mass peristalsis)
- 1-3 times/day
- Forceful contractions
- Involve contraction of large segment of colon
- Propel contents into rectum and induce desire for defecation
221
Microbiota of colon produce three critical vitamins
- Vitamin K
- Biotin (water soluble)
- Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) (water soluble)
222
Vitamin K
Required by liver for synthesizing four clotting factors, including prothrombin
223
Biotin
Important in glucose metabolism
224
Vitamin B5
Required in manufacture of steroid hormones and some neurotransmitters
225
Bacteria break down peptides in feces and generate
- Ammonia, as soluble ammonium ions
- Volatile organic and nitrogen compounds responsible for the odor of feces
- Hydrogen sulfide, gas that produces "rotten egg" odor
226
5 general symptoms related to intestinal gas
1) Pain
2) bloating and abdominal distension
3) Excessive flatus volume
4) excessive flatus smell
5) gas incontinence
227
Larger intestine responsible for
preparing waste for excretion, which is dependent on water reabsorption
228
The longer the fecal matter remains in large intestine
the more water absorbed, feces becomes drier and defecation becomes difficult and painful (constipation)
229
Two positive feedback loops in defecation reflex, both stimulated by stretch receptors in the anus
- Long reflex which stimulates mass movements (parasympathetic system)
- Short reflex which triggers peristalic contractions in rectum
230
Fluorapatite
Product of flouride, stronger and more acid-resistant than natural hydroxyapatite.
231
Ectodermal dysplasia
Disorder that leads to absent, malformed ectodermal derivatives
232
Gastroesophageal refluc disease
Condition in which the stomach contents leak backwards from stomach into the esophagus
233
Peptic ulcers
A sore in the lining of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum.
- 80% caused by helicobacter pylori
- 20% caused by prolonged use of irritants: alcohol, aspirin
234
Fatty liver disease (Hepatic steatosis)
Short term can be completely reversible once drinker sobers up. Further complications arise with long term usage/abuse. Fat makes up more than 10% liver weight
235
Liver fibrosis
Excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins that occurs in most types of chronic liver diseases
236
In advanced stages of liver fibrosis
Liver contains approx 6 times more ECM than normal
237
Liver cirrhosis
Scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue and partially blocks the flow of blood through the liver
238
Most common causes of cirrhosis
- Chronic hepatitis B, C
- Alcohol-related liver disease
- nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
239
Common complications of liver cirrhosis
Bruising, gallstones, edema
240
Liver cirrhosis and fibrosis can lead to
portal hypertension due to blockage of blood flow by scar tissue
241
Acute Pancreatitis
Inflammation of the pancreas and usually resolves in a few days with treatment
242
Type I Diabetes
Usually develops when the immune system destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas
243
Type II Diabetes
Primarily due to resistance by the liver, adipose tissue, and muscles. As a result, the body needs higher levels of insulin to help glucose enter cells
244
Crohn's disease
Chronic, long lasting, disease that causes inflammation in the small and large intestine. REsult of proinflammatory response to commensal gut bacteria
245
Ulcerative olitis
Only affects the colon, typically the descending colon
246
Hirschsprung's disease
A failure to form enteric ganglia in the hindgut from incomplete neural crest cell migration
247
Urology
Surgical specialty which deals with diseases of the male and female urinary tract and the male reproductive organs
248
Nephron of the kidney consists of
renal tubule and renal corpuscle
249
Once fluid enters renal tubule it is called
tubular fluid
250
Vasa recta
long, straight capillaries
251
Renal corpuscle histological characteristics
Glomerulus, mesangial cells, and dense layer, enclosed by the glomerular capsule, visceral epithelium, and capsular epithelium separated by capsular space
252
Renal sorpuscle primary function
filtration of blood plasma
253
Renal tubule histological characteristics
Cuboidal cells WITH MICROVILLI
254
Primary function of renal tubule
Reabsorption of ions, organism molecules, vitamins, water, secretion of drugs, toxins, and acids
255
Histological characteristics of nephron loop
squamous or low cuboidal cells
256
Primary function of nephron loop
Descending limb; reabsrption of water from tubular fluid
| Ascending limb; reabsorption of ions, assists in creation of conc. gradient in the medulla
257
Distal convoluted tube (DCT) histological characteristics
Cuboidal cells with few if any microvilli
258
Primary function of DCT
REabsorption of sodium ions and calcium ions; secretions of acids, ammonia, drugs, toxins
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Four major types of kidney stones
- Calcium stones
- Uric acid stones
- Struvite stones
- Cystine stones
