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BIOL 243 > Test 3 > Flashcards

Test 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Hemoglobin + oxygen =

A

Oxyhemoglobin

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2
Q

Hemoglobin saturation

A

The percentage of heme units in a hemoglobin molecule that contains bound oxygen

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3
Q

Environmental factors affecting hemoglobin synthesis

A
  • Po2 of blood
  • Blood pH
  • Temperature]
  • Metabolic activity within RBC’s
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4
Q

Hypoxemia/Hypoxia

A

Oxygen levels below 90%

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5
Q

Blood levels below 80% may

A

Compromise organ function

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6
Q

Each bound oxygen

A

Increases the efficiency of binding another oxygen molecule

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7
Q

Small changes in Po2 leads to

A

large changes in bound oxygen

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8
Q

Active muscle recieve

A

more oxygen because of larger differences in Po2

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9
Q

By regulation, commercial airlines cannot fly above

A

10,000 feet without pressurized or supplemental oxygen

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10
Q

Cabin pressure is maintained at the equivalent of

A

8500 ft

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11
Q

As blood pH decreases oxygen saturation

A

decreases

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12
Q

Bohr effect

A

Active muscles produce acids as a waste product

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13
Q

Hemoglobin molecule changes shape, affecting its ability to

A

bind oxygen

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14
Q

Carbon dioxide is the primary compound responsible for the

A

Bohr Effect

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15
Q

Carbonic anhydrase, present in RBCs, catalyzes carbon dioxide and water to

A

Carbonic acid

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16
Q

Temperature increase =

A

Hemoglobin releases more oxygen

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17
Q

Temperature decrease =

A

hemoglobin holds oxygen more tightly

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18
Q

Temperature effects significant only in

A

active tissues that are generating large amounts of heat

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19
Q

Fetal hemoglobin

A

Allows for oxygen to be pulled across the placental barrier to bind to fetal hemoglobin

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20
Q

Fetal hemoglobin has a

A

higher oxyhemoglobin saturation at lower Po2 levels

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21
Q

CO2 in bloodstream can be carrier three ways

A

1) Converted to carbonic acid (70%)
2) Converted to hemoglobin within red blood cells
3) Dissolved in plasma

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22
Q

Carbonic acid formation

A

70% CO2 transported as carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Which dissolves into H+ and bicarbonate

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23
Q

Bicarbonate ions

A

Move into plasma by exchange mechanism (Chloride shift) that takes in CI ions without using ATP

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24
Q

By raising or lowering the ventilation rate

A

The CNS can alter CO2 and thus change H+ concentration

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25
Q

Local regulation of gas transport and alveolar function

A

Rising PCO2 levels relax smooth muscle in arterioles and capillaries. Increase blood flow

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26
Q

Coordination of lung perfusion and alveolar ventilation

A
  • Shifting blood flow helps direct air to bronchioles with high PCO2
  • PCO2 levels control bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation
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27
Q

Regulation of respiration is done by

A

Respiratory rhythmicity centers of the medulla oblongata and pons

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28
Q

Diffusion at alveoli highly regulated by brain to

A

Maintain oxygen supply to body’s tissues and removal of carbon dioxide

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29
Q

VRG

A

responsible for control of accessory breathing muscles

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30
Q

DRG

A

Primarily responsible for inspiration

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31
Q

Pontine respiratory group (PRG)

A

Assures precise control of inhalation and exhalation

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32
Q

More on Pontine respiratory group

A
  • Control depth and rate of inspiration

- Reciprocal inhibition assures precise control of inspiration and respiration

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33
Q

Pneumotaxic center

A

Negative regulation of the DRG, promotes active exhalation

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34
Q

Apneustic center

A

Constant stimulation of the DRG controlling degree of inhalation

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35
Q

Quiet breathing Respiratory reflex arc

A
  • Brief activity in DRG. Stimulates inspiratory muscles

- DRG neurons become inactive. Allowing passive exhalation

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36
Q

Forced Breathing Respiratory reflex arc

A
  • Increased activity in DRG. Stimulates VRG which activates accessory inspiratory muscles
  • After inhalation. VRG neurons stimulate active exhalation
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37
Q

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

A
  • Leading cause of death for babies 1-12 months
  • Typically between midnight and 9 am
  • Cause under debate. (genetic, exposure to cigarette smoke, premature birth)
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38
Q

Function of both cough reflex and sneeze reflex

A

Dislodge foreign matter or irritating material from respiratory passages

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39
Q

Cough receptors

A

Widespread, rapidly adapting sensory receptors

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40
Q

Afferent nerves of cough reflex

A

Vagal nerves, CN X

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41
Q

Cough center

A

Centered in the solitary nucleus of the medulla oblongata Target of cough medicine

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42
Q

Efferent nerves of cough reflex

A

Phrenic and spinal motor nerves

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43
Q

Effector muscles of cough reflex

A

Glottis, external intercostal, diaphragm, major inspiratory and expiratory muscles

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44
Q

Components of the cough reflex

A

1) During cough about 2.5L air inspired, epiglottis closes, and vestibular folds and vocal cords close tightly to trap inspired air in the lung
2) Abdominal muscles contract to force abdominal contents up against the diaphragm; the muscles of expiration contract forcefully
3) Vestibular folds, vocal cords, and epiglottis open suddenly due to air pressure reaching 100 mmHg. Air rushes from lungs at high velocity, carrying foreign particles with it

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45
Q

Where are cough receptors?

A

Posterior wall of trachea, pharynx, and carina of trachea

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46
Q

Source of irritation for sneeze reflex

A

Nasal passages

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47
Q

Action potentials for sneeze reflex conducted along

A

Facial nerve

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48
Q

Why do we not sneeze as much during sleep

A

Isn’t as much airflow to stir up irritating particles, so they aren’t exposed to stimulants.
Fewer neurotransmitters are being produced, reducing neurotransmitters being sent to the brain

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49
Q

Brief overview of coughing reflex

A
  • Irritation of trachea, bronchi, etc.
  • Vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves
  • Closed glottis
  • Reflex, voluntary
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50
Q

Brief overview of sneezing reflex

A
  • Irritation of nasal mucosa
  • Trigeminal nerve
  • opened glottis
  • Reflex
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51
Q

Reduced capacity for air exchange can cause an older person to become

A

“short of breath” upon exertion

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52
Q

Lung parenchyma

A

Portion of lung involved with gas transfer

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53
Q

What can gradually accumulate in lymph nodes and lungs?

A

Carbon, dust, and pollution

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54
Q

Decrease in elastic connective tissue in lungs and thoracic cavity wall due to aging can cause

A

Lungs to become more compliant, thoracic cavity becomes less compliant due to calcification

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55
Q

Major organs of digestive system

A

Oral Cavity, Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

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56
Q

Accessory organs of digestive system

A

teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

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57
Q

Main functions of digestive system

A
  • Ingestion
  • Mechanical processing (mastication)
  • Digestion
  • Secretion
  • absorption
  • Excretion (defecation)
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58
Q

Lining of the digestive tract also safeguards surrounding tissue against:

A
  • Corrosive effects of digestive acids and enzymes
  • Mechanical stresses, such as abrasion
  • Bacteria ingested with food or that reside in digestive tract
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59
Q

Food is digested in

A

six to eight hours

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60
Q

Waste is excreted after

A

24-72 hours

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61
Q

Foregut pathway

A

Begins with the abdominal esophagus and ends just inferior to the major duodenal papilla. Midway along the descending part of the duodenum

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62
Q

Foregut Includes

A

Abdominal esophagus, stomach, duodenum (superior to the major papilla), liver, pancreas, and gallbladder

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63
Q

Midgut pathway

A

Begins just inferior to the major duodenal papilla in the descending part of the duodenum, and ends at the junction between the proximal two-thirds and distal one-third of the transverse colon

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64
Q

Midgut Includes

A

Duodenum (inferior to the major duodenal papilla), jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and the right two-thirds of the transverse colon

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65
Q

Hindgut pathway

A

Begins just before the left colic flexure (The junction between the proximal two-thirds and distal one-third of the transverse colon) and ends midway through the anal canal

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66
Q

Hindgut includes

A

Left one-third of the transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and upper part of the anal canal

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67
Q

Arterial divisions of gut tube

A

Foregut - Celiac trunk
Midgut - Superior mesenteric
Hindgut - inferior mesenteric

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68
Q

Venuous divisions of gut tube

A

Forgut - individual veins
Midgut - superior mesenteric
Hindgut - inferior mesenteric

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69
Q

Nerve supply divisions of gut tube

A

Foregut - T5-T9
Midgut - T10-T11
Hindgut - T12
Pelvic - L1-L2

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70
Q

Genioglossus

A

Major muscle responsible for protruding (or sticking out) the tongue

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71
Q

Styloglossus

A

muscle that elevates and retracts the tongue

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72
Q

Vertical muscle

A

Flattens the tongue

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73
Q

Geniohyoid muscle

A

moves the hyoid bone during swallowing

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74
Q

hyoglossus

A

depresses and retracts tongue and makes the dorsum more convex

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75
Q

Lingual papillae

A
  • Vallate papilla (up to 100 taste buds)
  • foliate papillae
  • fungiform papilla
  • filliform papillae (no taste buds)
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76
Q

The primary function of teeth is

A

to chew food (masticate)

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77
Q

Types of teeth

A
  • incisors
  • Cuspids (canines)
  • Bicuspids (premolars)
  • Molars
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78
Q

Dental formula

A

2.1.2.3

incisors,cuspids,bicuspids,molars

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79
Q

Total number of teeth

A

32

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80
Q

Wisdom teeth

A

vestigial third molars that helped human ancestors to grind plant tissue

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81
Q

Dentin

A

Mineralized, acellular matric similar to that of bone

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82
Q

Pulp cavity

A

Recieved blood vessels and nerves through the root canal

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83
Q

Root

A

Each tooth sits in a bony socket (alveolus) with a layer of cementum covering dentin of the root.
Providing protection and anchoring periodontal ligament

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84
Q

Crown

A
  • Exposed portion of tooth
  • Projects beyond soft tissue of gingivs
  • Dentin covered by layer of enamel
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85
Q

Deciduous teeth

A

diphodonty

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86
Q

By the time the embryo is eight weeks old

A

there are ten teeth buds on the upper and lower arches

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87
Q

Permanent teeth replacements develop from

A

the same tooth germs as the primary teeth

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88
Q

Stages of tooth morphogenesis

A
  • Initiation
  • morphogenesis
  • Differentiation and mineralization
  • Root formation and eruption
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89
Q

Placode

A

Earliest stage of tooth formation

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90
Q

Enamel knots

A

Marks the location where the tooth cusps will form

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91
Q

Odontoblasts

A

secrete dentin

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92
Q

Ameloblasts

A

secrete enamel

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93
Q

osterblasts

A

secrete bone

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94
Q

cementoblasts

A

secrete cementum

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95
Q

3 pairs of salivary glands

A
  • Parotid salivary gland
  • sublingual salivary gland
  • submandibular salivary gland
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96
Q

Parotid salivary glands

A
  • Inferior to zygomatic arch
  • Produce serous secretion, enzyme salivary amylase
  • Drained by parotid duct, which empty into vestibule at second molar
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97
Q

Salivary amylase

A

Breaks down starches

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98
Q

Sublingual salivary glands

A
  • Covered by mucous membrane of floor of mouth
  • produce mucous scretion which acts as a buffer and lubricant
  • Empty through sublingual ducts on either side of lingual frenulum
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99
Q

Submandibular salivary glands

A
  • Located in the floor of mouth within mandibular groove
  • Secrete buffersm glycoproteins (mucins), and salivary amylase
  • Account for majority of salivary volume
  • empty through the submandibular ducts which open immediately posterior to teeth on either side of lingual fenulum
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100
Q

Functions of saliva

A
  • Lubracating the mouth
  • Moistening and lubricating materials in the mouth
  • Dissolving chemicals that stimulate taste buds and provide sensory information
  • Carries the chemical cues of taste
  • Initiating digestion of complex carbohydrates by the enzyme salivary amylase and lipase
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101
Q

Composition of Saliva

A
  • 99.4% water

- 0.6% of other

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102
Q

0.6 percent of saliva includes

A
  • Electrolytes (Na+, Cl-, And HCO3-)
  • Buffers
  • Glycoproteins (mucins)
  • Antibodies (IgA)
  • Enzymes
  • Waste products
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103
Q

Swallowing involves co-ordinated activity of muscles of

A

oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus

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104
Q

Swallowing, by definition, involves

A

passage of bolus of food (solid/liquid) from the oral cavity to stomach via the pharync and esophagus

105
Q

Whole swallowing process is partly under

A

voluntary control and partly reflexive in nature

106
Q

Voluntary control of swallowing involves

A

Control of jaw, tongue, degree of constriction and length of pharynx and closure of laryngeal inlet

107
Q

Four stages of swallowing

A

Oral/Buccal
Pharyngeal
Esophageal
Stomach

108
Q

What phase of respiration does swallowing occur?

A

The expiratory phase

109
Q

Why is swallowing considered a protective phenomenon?

A

Helps in clearing food material left in vestibule

110
Q

After a successful swallow

A

The rhythm of respiration is reset

111
Q

Oral phase function

A

Involves breaking down of food in the oral cavity

112
Q

Oral phase bolus formation

A

TOngue and elevators of lower jaw play vital role in bolus formation by action of its intrinsic muscles which alters its shape. Extrinsic muscle changes its position within the oral cavity thereby helping in chewing the food by dental occlusion

113
Q

Occlusal action of lips

A

Helps create an effective seal preventing the bolus from dribbling out of oral cavity

114
Q

Mucin in the saliva

A

Helps bind the bolus together

115
Q

Contraction of soft palate

A

Prevents nasal regurgitation, also prevents premature movement of bolus into the oropharynx

116
Q

Pharyngeal phase

A
  • Reflexive
  • Elevation of the larynx and folding of epiglottis direct bolus past closed glottis
  • Contraction of diaphragm is inhibited making simultaneous breathing and swallowing impossible
  • Soft palate remains elevated in order to seal off the nasopharynx
  • Epiglottis protects the airway
117
Q

Importance of laryngeal elevation during pharyngeal stage

A
  • Narrows laryngeal inlet
  • Ensures better sealing of the laryngeal inlet by the downturned epiglottis
  • Laryngeal elevation also contributes to dilation of pharynx
118
Q

Esophageal phase

A
  • Reflexive

- Begins as contraction of pharyngeal muscles forces the bolus through the entrance to the esophagus

119
Q

Nausea

A

Unpleasant subjectibe sensation that most people have experienced at some point in their lives and usually recognize as a feeling of impending vomiting in the epigastrum or throat

120
Q

Retching

A

Muscular activity of the abdomen and the thorax, often voluntary, leading to forced inspiration against a closed mouth and glottis without oral discharge of gastric contents

121
Q

Vomiting

A

Largely involuntary act of forcefully expelling gastric or intestinal content through the mouth

122
Q

Location of the Vomiting center, the chemorecptor trigger zone (CTZ)

A

Situated bilaterally in medulla

123
Q

Sensory impulses from irritated parts of GIT or other organs are transmitted to CTZ through

A

Vagus and sympathetic afferent fibers

124
Q

Antiemetic medications ofter target the CTZ to

A

completely inhibit or greatly reduce vomiting

125
Q

During ejection of vomitus

A
  • Esophagus relaxed throughout
  • Glottis closed
  • Larynx and hyoid bone drawn upward and foward
  • respiration inhibited
  • throat dilated to allow free exit of vomitus
  • Entry of vomitus into nasopharynx is prevented by elevation of soft palate
126
Q

Bolus of food is moved by

A

Visceral smooth muscle tissue of digestive tract

127
Q

Peristaltic motion

A

1) Circular muscles contract behind bolus while circular muscles ahead of bolus relax
2) Longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus contract shortening adjacent segments
3) Wave of contraction in circular muscles forces the bolus foward

128
Q

Wall of esophagus has three layers

A

Mucosal
Submucosal
Muscularis

129
Q

The esophagus joins

A

pharynx to stomach

130
Q

The esophagus enters the abdominopelvic cavity through

A

the esophageal hiatus

131
Q

What is esophagus innervated by

A

fibers from the esophageal plexus

132
Q

How long is esophagus

A

25-30 cm long, C6-T11

133
Q

Mucosa of esophagus contains

A

nonkeratinized and stratified squamous epithelium

134
Q

Submucosa of esophagus contains

A

glands which produce mucous secretion that reduces friction between bolus and esophageal lining

135
Q

Mucosa and submucosa form

A

large folds that extend the length of the esophagus

136
Q

Muscularis mucosae consists of

A

irregular layer of smooth muscle

137
Q

Cardia

A

Where contents of the esophagus empty into the stomach

138
Q

fundus

A

formed by upper curvature of the organ

139
Q

Body

A

Main,central region of stomach

140
Q

Pylorus

A

Lower section of the organ that facilitates emptying the contents into the small intestine (gatekeeper)

141
Q

Lesser omentum reduced to the

A

Hepatogastric ligament

142
Q

Falciform ligament

A

stabilizes the position of the liver and diaphragm

143
Q

Greater omentum

A

first tissue observed when opening the abdominal cavity

144
Q

stomach has 3 layers of muscle

A
  • Longitudinal muscle layer
  • Circular muscle layer
  • Oblique muscle layer overlying mucosa
145
Q

Rugae

A

Can expand up to 50 times and return to original size

146
Q

Simple columnar epithelium is a secretory sheet that lines all portions of stomach that

A
  • Produces mucus that covers interior surface of stomach
  • gastric pits, shallow depressions that open onto the gastric surface
  • Mucous calls, at the base, or neck, or each gastric pit, actively divide, replacing superficial cells
147
Q

Parietal cells

A

Secrete HCL

148
Q

G cells

A

Produce gastrin

149
Q

Chief cells

A

release pepsinogen and gastric lipase (Zymogenic cell)

150
Q

Liver blood composition

A
  • 1/3 arterial blood from hepatic artery proper
  • 2/3 venous blood from hepatic portal vein, originating in esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and most of the large intestine
151
Q

Liver lobules function as the

A

basic functional units

152
Q

Hexagonal cross section of liver shows

A

Six portal areas (portal triads) one at each corner of lobule

153
Q

each lobule consists of

A

portal vein, hepatic artery brahcn and bile canaliculi

154
Q

Hepatocytes

A

Adjust circulating levels of nutrients through selective absorption and secretion
Form series of irregular plates like wheel spokes

155
Q

Kupffer cells

A

Located in sinusoidal lining..

Function as part of monocyte-macrophage system. Also store heavy metal and iron (heme)

156
Q

Bile duct system

A

Secretes bile fluid into a network of narrow channels (bile canaliculli) between opposing membranes of adjacent liver cells

157
Q

Common Bile duct

A

Formed by union of cystic duct and common hepatic duct

158
Q

Pathway of common bile duct

A

Towards the duodenum after meeting the pancreatic duct at the duodenal ampulla

159
Q

Cystic duct leads to

A

gall bladder

160
Q

Pancreatic islet cells are

A

endocrine glands

161
Q

Acinar cells

A

Secrete digestive enzymes

162
Q

Duodenum

A

Primary site of iron absorption and the place where most chemical digestion occurs

163
Q

Brunner’s glands

A

Compound tubular submucosal glands found in the duodenum. Distinguishes first part of duodenum with rest, know this

164
Q

Function of Brunner’s glands

A
  • Protect duodenum from acidic content of chyme (containing bicarbonate)
  • Provide an alkaline condition for the intestinal enzymes to be active, thus enabling absorption
  • Lubricate the intestinal walls with mucus
165
Q

During fasting

A

villi are inactive and lie flat

166
Q

Lacteal

A

lymphatic capillaryu that absorbs dietary fats in the villi of the small intestine: shylomicrons

167
Q

4 types of cells make up the lining of the small intestine

A
  • Paneth cells
  • Goblet cells
  • Enterocytes
  • Enteroendocrine cells
168
Q

Paneth cells

A

Secrete several anti0microbial compounds and other compounds that are known to be important in immunity and host-defense

169
Q

Goblet

A

Secrete mucins, posssess microvilli

170
Q

Enterocytes

A

intestinal absorptive cells, contain microvilli

171
Q

Enteroendocrine cells

A

Hormone and regulatory molecule secretion

172
Q

Primary function of large intestine

A

Absorption of water and electrolytes and the storage of undigested material until it can be expelled from the body as feces

173
Q

Ileocecal valve

A

Communication of cecum with small intestine

174
Q

Excitatory factors of cecum

A
  • pressure and chemical irritation relac sphincter and excite peristalisis
  • Fluidity of contents promotes emptying
175
Q

Inhibitory factors of cecum

A

Pressure or chemical irritation in cecum inhibits peristalisis of ileum and excites sphincter

176
Q

Haustra

A

Series of pouches formed by wall of colon which permit expansion and elongation of colon

177
Q

Taeniae coli

A

Formed by haustra. Three separate longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscle on the outside of colon

178
Q

Inferior mesenteric artery

A

Terminal branch arises and forms the superior rectal artery and supplies the upper rectum

179
Q

Internal iliac

A

Middle and rectal artery arise from this

180
Q

Lingual lipase

A

Secreted by circumvallate and foliate papillae by the Ebner’s glands. Starts digestion of the lipids/fats

181
Q

Salivary amylase

A

Produced by the salivary glands, begins carbohydrate digestion (ptyalin)

182
Q

Haptocorrin (R factor)

A

Produced by salivary glands, protects vitamin B12 from stomach acid. In the duodenum intrinsic factor (IF) binds the B12 after its release from haptocorrin by digestion. Without IF only 1% of vitamin B12 is absorbed

183
Q

Acidity in stomach also

A

1) Kills most microorganisms
2) Denatures most proteins
3) Breaks down plant cell walls and animal connective tissues

184
Q

What drugs can be absorbed through the mucous lining?

A

Ethanol and aspirin

185
Q

Parietal Cells

A

Secrete HCL - but HCL is not made in the cell

186
Q

G cells

A

produce gastrin - most abundant in the pyloric antrum. Stimulates parietal and chief cells to speed digestion

187
Q

Delta cells (D cells)

A

Release comatostatin, a hormone that inhibits release of gastrin. slows the digestive process

188
Q

Three phases of gastric control

A

Cephalic phase
gastric phase
intestinal phase

189
Q

CCK - Cholecystokinin

A

Triggered by fats and carbohydrates
Triggers release of bile and pancreatic enzymes
a hunger suppressant

190
Q

GIP - Gastric inhibitory peptide

A

Triggered by fats and carbohydrates

Stimulates duodenal gland activity

191
Q

Secretin

A

Triggered by lower pH
Triggers release of bile and pancreatic enzymes
reduces gastric mobility and secretion

192
Q

gastroenteric reflex

A

stimulation of the stomach by stretching triggers release of gastrin. An acidic pH in the duodenum inhibits release of further stomach contents

193
Q

Gastrocolic reflex

A

Stimulation of the stomach causing increased activity in the colon

194
Q

Duodenal-colic reflex (gastroileal reflex)

A

Stimulation of iliocecal valve and mass movement in the colon by the presence of food or stretch in the duodenum

195
Q

Borborygmi (Stomach grownling)

A

Functionally, intiates hunger response, but also serves to flush bacterial and food waste from the intestine

196
Q

Hunger Pangs

A

Usually do not begin until 12 to 24 hours after the last ingestion of food

197
Q

What does the liver perform or regulate

A
  • Composition of circulating blood
  • Nutrient metabolism
  • Waste product removal
  • Amino acid synthesis
  • Nutrient storage
  • Hormone synthesis
  • Drug inactivation
  • Bile production
198
Q

Carbohydrate metabolism

A

Liver stabilizes glucose levels at 90mg/dL

199
Q

If glucose levels are low

A

Hepatocytes break down glycogen (glycogenolysis) and synthesize glucose (gluconeogenesis)

200
Q

If glucose levels are too high

A

Glucose is stored as glycogen (glucogenesis) or use it to syntheesize lipids

201
Q

The liver regulates circulating levels of

A

triglycerides, fatty acids, and cholesterol

202
Q

The liver performs

A

1) Cholesterol synthesis
2) Lipogenesis
3) production of triglycerides
4) lipoproteins synthesis

203
Q

If lipid/cholesterol levels decline

A

the liver breaks down stored fats

204
Q

If lipid/cholesterol levels in circulatory system rise

A

lipids become stored as fat

205
Q

Deamination

A

Action of liver which removes amino acids from larger molecules

206
Q

Ammonia, a product of deamination is converted to what?

A

urea, which is then extracted by kidneys

207
Q

Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)

A

Enzyme in liver cells that breaks down or metabolizes most alcohol

208
Q

Alcohol flush syndrome

A

Buildup of acetaldehyde

209
Q

Vitamin and nutrient storage of liver

A 
Stores fat soluble vitamins:
A (1-2 year supply)
D(1-4 month supply)
E(3-5 year supply)
K
Copper and Iron
210
Q

What type of synthesis involved with liver?

A

Amino acids, Insulin-like growth factor, hepcidin, thrombopoietin, albumin

211
Q

What does liver help in removal of?

A

Antibodies and excess hormones

212
Q

Drug inactivation with liver

A

Cytochrome P-450 is the primary enzyme regulating drug breakdown

213
Q

Function of bile salts

A

Emulsify large lipid droplets and promote the absorption of lipids by small intestine

214
Q

Carbohydrases

A

break bonds between simple sugars

215
Q

Maltase, sucrase, lactase

A
  • Targets maltose, sucrose, lactose
  • Found in brush border of small intestine
  • Carbohydrase
216
Q

Pancreatic alpha-enzyme

A
  • Carbohydrase
  • Targets complex carbohydrates
  • Secreted from Pancreas
217
Q

Salivary amylase

A
  • Carbohydrase
  • Targets complex carbohydrates
  • Secreted from salivary glands
218
Q

Haustral contractions in the colon

A

roughly once every 25 minutes

219
Q

Peristalsis in the colon

A

Slow movement of material through the colon

220
Q

Mass movement in colon (Mass peristalsis)

A
  • 1-3 times/day
  • Forceful contractions
  • Involve contraction of large segment of colon
  • Propel contents into rectum and induce desire for defecation
221
Q

Microbiota of colon produce three critical vitamins

A
  • Vitamin K
  • Biotin (water soluble)
  • Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) (water soluble)
222
Q

Vitamin K

A

Required by liver for synthesizing four clotting factors, including prothrombin

223
Q

Biotin

A

Important in glucose metabolism

224
Q

Vitamin B5

A

Required in manufacture of steroid hormones and some neurotransmitters

225
Q

Bacteria break down peptides in feces and generate

A
  • Ammonia, as soluble ammonium ions
  • Volatile organic and nitrogen compounds responsible for the odor of feces
  • Hydrogen sulfide, gas that produces “rotten egg” odor
226
Q

5 general symptoms related to intestinal gas

A

1) Pain
2) bloating and abdominal distension
3) Excessive flatus volume
4) excessive flatus smell
5) gas incontinence

227
Q

Larger intestine responsible for

A

preparing waste for excretion, which is dependent on water reabsorption

228
Q

The longer the fecal matter remains in large intestine

A

the more water absorbed, feces becomes drier and defecation becomes difficult and painful (constipation)

229
Q

Two positive feedback loops in defecation reflex, both stimulated by stretch receptors in the anus

A
  • Long reflex which stimulates mass movements (parasympathetic system)
  • Short reflex which triggers peristalic contractions in rectum
230
Q

Fluorapatite

A

Product of flouride, stronger and more acid-resistant than natural hydroxyapatite.

231
Q

Ectodermal dysplasia

A

Disorder that leads to absent, malformed ectodermal derivatives

232
Q

Gastroesophageal refluc disease

A

Condition in which the stomach contents leak backwards from stomach into the esophagus

233
Q

Peptic ulcers

A

A sore in the lining of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum.

  • 80% caused by helicobacter pylori
  • 20% caused by prolonged use of irritants: alcohol, aspirin
234
Q

Fatty liver disease (Hepatic steatosis)

A

Short term can be completely reversible once drinker sobers up. Further complications arise with long term usage/abuse. Fat makes up more than 10% liver weight

235
Q

Liver fibrosis

A

Excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins that occurs in most types of chronic liver diseases

236
Q

In advanced stages of liver fibrosis

A

Liver contains approx 6 times more ECM than normal

237
Q

Liver cirrhosis

A

Scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue and partially blocks the flow of blood through the liver

238
Q

Most common causes of cirrhosis

A
  • Chronic hepatitis B, C
  • Alcohol-related liver disease
  • nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
239
Q

Common complications of liver cirrhosis

A

Bruising, gallstones, edema

240
Q

Liver cirrhosis and fibrosis can lead to

A

portal hypertension due to blockage of blood flow by scar tissue

241
Q

Acute Pancreatitis

A

Inflammation of the pancreas and usually resolves in a few days with treatment

242
Q

Type I Diabetes

A

Usually develops when the immune system destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas

243
Q

Type II Diabetes

A

Primarily due to resistance by the liver, adipose tissue, and muscles. As a result, the body needs higher levels of insulin to help glucose enter cells

244
Q

Crohn’s disease

A

Chronic, long lasting, disease that causes inflammation in the small and large intestine. REsult of proinflammatory response to commensal gut bacteria

245
Q

Ulcerative olitis

A

Only affects the colon, typically the descending colon

246
Q

Hirschsprung’s disease

A

A failure to form enteric ganglia in the hindgut from incomplete neural crest cell migration

247
Q

Urology

A

Surgical specialty which deals with diseases of the male and female urinary tract and the male reproductive organs

248
Q

Nephron of the kidney consists of

A

renal tubule and renal corpuscle

249
Q

Once fluid enters renal tubule it is called

A

tubular fluid

250
Q

Vasa recta

A

long, straight capillaries

251
Q

Renal corpuscle histological characteristics

A

Glomerulus, mesangial cells, and dense layer, enclosed by the glomerular capsule, visceral epithelium, and capsular epithelium separated by capsular space

252
Q

Renal sorpuscle primary function

A

filtration of blood plasma

253
Q

Renal tubule histological characteristics

A

Cuboidal cells WITH MICROVILLI

254
Q

Primary function of renal tubule

A

Reabsorption of ions, organism molecules, vitamins, water, secretion of drugs, toxins, and acids

255
Q

Histological characteristics of nephron loop

A

squamous or low cuboidal cells

256
Q

Primary function of nephron loop

A

Descending limb; reabsrption of water from tubular fluid

Ascending limb; reabsorption of ions, assists in creation of conc. gradient in the medulla

257
Q

Distal convoluted tube (DCT) histological characteristics

A

Cuboidal cells with few if any microvilli

258
Q

Primary function of DCT

A

REabsorption of sodium ions and calcium ions; secretions of acids, ammonia, drugs, toxins

259
Q

Four major types of kidney stones

A
  • Calcium stones
  • Uric acid stones
  • Struvite stones
  • Cystine stones

BIOL 243 (3 decks)

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