test 2 stuff Flashcards
components or rokcs
minerals
tells us how rocks are formed, modified, what tectonic process they use
minearls
fine grained (rhylotie) forms a what
volcano
olivine and pyroxene are in the
mantle
garnet is schist suggests
metamorphism
5 important rules about minerals
naturally occuring inorganic solids crystalline structure definable chemical composition
is coal a mineral
no
basic building blocks of minerals
elements
smallest particles of matter
atoms
how do minerals get destryoed
melting
dissolution in aqueous solutiosn
chemical reaction with other minerals
minerals with the same chemical arrangement but different atomical arrangment
polymorph
8 things to identify minerals by
color streak luster hardness density crystal habit cleavage specific properties
formed at lower pressures and temps than diamonds
graphite
strong bonds connect carbon atoms arranged in ____ in graphite
sheets
weak bonds connect carbon atoms between ____ in graphite
alternating sheets
native elements are minerals composted of
a single elemetn
silicates are the most common what
major mineral group
silicates contain _____ tetrahedron. and is the _____ class of rock-forming minerals
silicon - oxygen
largest/most important
carbonates are the 2nd most common what
major mineral group
carbonates contain _____ . has economic value and examples are _____
carbon / oxygen
examples = limestone, marble
____ elements compose most of the rock - forming minerals
8
most abundant rock forming minerals are
oxygen / silicon
common organisms in the ocean make hard parts out of ____
calcite or aragonite
one celled plant like organism
phytoplankton
amoeboid like organism (animal)
foraminifera
2 polymorphs of calcium carbonate
calcite or aragonite
identified deposits
reserves
metallic minerals that can be mined at a profit
ores
3 rock types
igneous
sedimentary
metamorphic
cools and crystallizes from magma, intrusive and extrusive
igneous
deposited at earth’s surface by physical, chemical, or biologic agents and then buried
sedimentary rocks
rocks formed by the transformation of pre-existing solid rocks due to changes in the temperature and pressure
metamorphic rocks
formed as magma cools and crystallizes
igneous rocks
rocks formed inside the earth are called
plutonic/ intrusive rocks
extrusive pyroclasts form in violent eruptions from lava in the air
volcanic ash, bomb, pumice
magic basal,t felsic rhyolite , e
extrusive igneous rocks
gabbro, granite
intrusive igneous rocks
classification of igneous rocks is based on rocks’s ____ and ____ ___
rock’s texture and mineral constituents
size and arrangements of crystals
texture
fine grained rocks have a ___ rate of cooling
fast
example of fine -grained rocks
basalt
coarse grained rocks have a ____ rate of cooling
slow
example of coarse grained rocks
diorite
has two rates of cooling because of two crystal sizes
porphryitic rocks
example of porphrytic rocks
granite
very fast rate of cooling
glassy / obsidian
4 compositional groups of igneous rocks
felsic
intermediate
mafic
ultra-mafic
example of felsic minerals
quartz
orthoclax feldspar
plagioclase feldspar
muscovite (mica
silicate structure of felsic rocks
frameworks
sheets
minerals of mafic rocks
biotite (mica)
amphibole group
pyroxene group
olivine
silicate structure of mafic rocks
double chains
single chains
isolated tetrahedrea
feldspar - silica
felsic
magnesium ferric
mafic
rising mass of magma that pushes aside crustal rocks as it rises through the crust
magma chamber
temp of ____ is required for partial melting of crustal rocks
and a depth of ____
1000 C
40 km
process by which rocks of varying composition can arise from a uniform parent magma
magmatic differentiation
the first minerals to crystallize from a cooling magma are the ones that are _____
the last to melt
process by which crystals are formed in a cooling magma and are segregated from the remaining liquid
fractional crystallization
example of fractional crystallizaiton
basaltic intrustion in palisades, NJ
shows order of crystallizations
Bowen’s reaction series
mineral composition of igneous rocks is influenced by what
crystal setting in magma
Bowen’s reaction s series from high temp to low temp
ultramafic (low silica) –> mafic (basaltic) –> intermediate (andesitic) –> flesic, rhyolite (high silica)
as magma temps decrease
composition of magma changes from ultra mafic to andesitic
underground igneous body
pluton
plutons are classified by
shape (tabular or massive)
intrusions are classified according to
orientation with respect to host
cuts across existing structures
discordant
parallel to features such as sedimentary strata
concordant
tabular, discordant intrusion (last stuff to crystallize out a magma)
dike
tabular, concordant intrusion
sill
largest intrusive body with a surface exposure over 100+ sq. feet
batholith
batholiths occur in
groups
smaller bodies of batholiths
stocks
batholiths frequently form the core of
mountains
sedimentary rocks make up about ____ % of all rock outcrops on land
75%
how does sedimentary rock influence economic importantce
coal, petroleum, natural gas, iron/ aluminium
process leading to sedimentary rocks
physical / chemical wearthering
weathering , erosion, transportation , depositions, burial compaction, diagenesis
lithifies sediment to make sedimentary rock
diagenesis
“detrital” solid particles, shale, sandstone, conglomerate, siltstone
silicastic sediminets
limestone, quartz (chert, flint), evaporites, (salt, gypsum) coal)
chemical and biological sediments
strength/ distance of transportation of sedimentary rocks affect
size, rounding,sorting of clastic particlse
short distance =
larger more angular rocks
long distance =
smaller, more rounded rocks
low intensity of weathering
quartz , feldspar, mica ,pyroxene, amphibole
medium intensity of weathering
quartz, feldspar, mica, clay, minerals
high intensity of weathering
quartz, clay, minerals
sedimentary rocks are produced through
lithification
loose sediments are transformed into solid rocks
lithification
precipitation or addition of new minerals cement sediment particles
cementation
burial squeezes out water
compaction
mud with pressure =
silt/siltstone, shale, clay, sandstone
sand with pressure =
sandstone
gravel with pressure
conglomerate
organic matter with pressure + 90-120 C
oil, gas, coal
features of sedimentary rocks
strata or beds, bedding planes separate strata
fosssils
rapid despoitional events
graded bedding
example of graded bedding
turbidites
traces of animal activity, yields info on depositional environemt
bioturbation structures
yield information on despoitional environments and current direction
ripples
graded bedding is associated with _____
underwater debris flow
laminated ____ typically have no oxygen
sediments
“changed rocks”
metamorphic rocks
changes to rocks occur in what state
solid state
causes of metamorphism
internal heat of hearth
internal pressure of earth
fluid composition inside earth
_____ and _____ increase with depth in all regions
internal heath and pressure of the earth
______ gradient varies place to place
geothermal
______ gradient is about the same everywhere
pressure
temperature ________ with the depth of geothermal gradient
increases
role of fluids
metasomatism
the 3 role of fluids
introduce or remove chemical components
accelerate metamorphic chemical reactions
can alter mineral composition with little change in rock texture
directed pressures/ high temperatures during mountain building
regional metamorphism
what produces greatest volume of metamorphic rock
regional metamorphism
occurs near a body of magma where changes are driven by a rise in temperature
contact / thermal metamorphism
minerals are in a parallel alignment and are perpendicular to the compressional force
foliated texture
contain equidimensional crystals
resembles a coarse-grained igneous rock
non foliated texture
more metamorphism = more
coarseness
formed under particular conditions of pressure and temperatures
metamorphic facies
( grouping of minerals –>
mineral assemblages
mineral assemblages in metamorphic rocks provide info on
parent tock type
temperature (geothermometry)
pressure (geobarometry)
non-metallic mineral resources are used for
building materials / industrial minerals
examples of building materials that are non-metallic mineral resources
limestone and gypsum
examples of industrial materials that are non-metallic mineral resources
fluorite, corundum, sylvite
generated from hydrothermal (hot-water) solutions
metallic mineral resources
examples of metallic mineral resources
gold, silver,cooper, mercury, lead etc.
breaks down rock to smaller pieces
weathering
transportation of a material by a mobile agent
erosion
3 controls on weathering
climate
soil
time
role of water in chemical weathering
hydrolysis
atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in water to produce
carbonic acid HCO3
this acid can dissolve rocks especially calcite / limestone
carbonic acid
weathering of _____ such as feldspar removes CO2 from the atmosphere
silicates
the most stable minerals like iron oxides/ aluminum hydroxides, and clays are the ___ point of chemical weathering processes
end point
in Bowen’s reaction series: first minerals to crystallize in series ( olivine ~ 1200 C) are more ______ to chemical weathering than the last ( Quartz ~600 C)
susceptible
ice has a greater ____ than liquid water
greater
water in cracks freezes and expands ~ cracking the rocks
frost wedging
when there are increases in slope steepness, there is more ____ and less ______
erosion and less chemical weathering
physical weathering _____ chemical weathering
and chemical weathering _____ physical weathering
accelerates
accelerates
chemical weathering is most effective in areas of ____ temps. and ____ moisture
warm temps and abundant moisture
creates unusual and spectacular rock formations / landforms
differential weathering
concentrates metals into economical deposits
secondary enrichments
removes undesired materials from desired materials
carries desired elements to lower zones
secondary enrichmenets
example of secondary enrichments
getting bauxite from aluminum
Big export of georgia
kaolinite
the interface in earth’s system
soil
steep slopes have ___ developed soils
poorly
flat to undulating upload surfaces
optimum slope
direction slope is facing
aspect
large increase in soil erosion. humans are incredibly effective erosional agents
farming
what composes of the topsoil
o Horizon and A horizon
what composes of the subsoil
B horizon
layer with most intense biological activity
O horizon
layer with leaching of soluble mineral compounds
A horizon
layer of accumulation of fine minerals/ mineral precipitates (clays / calcium carbonates)
B horizon
layer of regolith
C horizon
rock and mineral fragmenets
regolith
layers from top to bottom
O horizon A horizon E horizon? B horizon C horizon Bedrock
how does sodium in soil work
most sodium (true soil) at top layer and decreases as it goes down
rain water carries dissolved ions and clays downward
leaching
causes reservoirs to fill with sediment / contamination by pesticides and fertilizers
soil erosion / sedimentation
processes by which masses of rock and soil move downslope
mass wasting
occurs when the force of gravity exceeds the strength of the material and it moves downslope
mass movement
influences for mass wasting
nature of slope materials (angle of repose)
amount of water
destroys particle cohesion and water adds weight happens when
saturation of material with water
triggers of mass wasting
earthquake vibrations
rainfall / water infiltration
overloading
flow downhill at a high velocity on a cushion of air
rock avalanche
very slowly driven only by the tendency to move downhill
creep
pore water pressure is to a high enough level to support the weight of soil and rock along a curved surface
slumps
occur when fine ash is mixed with rainwater on the flanks of volcanoes
mudflow
high rainfall induces
earth flows and debris flow
causes fence and utility poles to tilt
creep
slow movement in layers underlain by permafrost.
upper active soil layer becomes saturated and slowly flows over a frozen surface below
soil creep / solifluction
an earth flow is ____ and occurs in _____. _____ may happen
rapid
humid regions
liquefaction may happen
rapid flow of debris with water that is confined to channels and is composed mostly of volcanic materials called laharas
mud flow
land area that contributes water to a river system
drainage basins
separates drainage basins
divides
factors that determine the velocity of a stream flow
gradient /slope
shape/size/roughness of the channel
drop in elevation divided by distance traveled
gradient
volume of water flowing in the stream
discharge
rougher stream channels = greater turbulence = ____ avg. velocity
decreased
straight of gently curved streams run like this
laminar flow
factors that decrease downstream
gradient/slope
channel roughness
grain size
lifting of loose particles
scour
transported material by a stream
stream’s load
a stream’s load is related to a stream’s ___ and ____
competence (maximum particle size) and capacity (maximum load)
cohesive particles like clays require a ____ current to erode them
strong
stream with lower cross-sectional area / lower velocity =
lower discharge
sediment deposition occurs on the ____ of a bend
inside
erosion occurs on the ___ of a bend
outside
stream sediments
aluvium
during deposition of a stream what happens
decrease in velocity
competence is reduced
sediment begins to drop out
maximum particle size
competence
maximum load a stream can carry
capacity
form parallel to stream channel
natural levees
areas behind levees may contain back ___
swamps
lowest point a stream can erode to
base level
local base levels can be
waterfalls
uplift and river terraces are formed from
uplift
valleys are shaped by
mass wasting
weathering
overland flow
young river valleys are
“v-shaped”
down cutting toward base level
in narrow valleys that are rapid, they can carry ___ than is being produced
more sediment
in wide valleys, there is ___ sediment than ___ ___
more sediment than river can carry
the stream is near the base level in this valley
downward erosion is less dominant
stream energy is directed from side to side
wide valleys
form in streams with large variations in flow combined with high sediment land in glacial areas
braided channels
type of drainage patters
dendritic
radial
rectangular
trellils
most common drainage pattern
dendritic
