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EAS 2600 > Test 1 stuff > Flashcards

Test 1 stuff Flashcards

1
Q

_____ are common and seismic hazard is high throughout the carribean

A

earthquakes

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2
Q

earthquakes cannot be reliably ___ or ___

A

predicted or mitigated

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3
Q

earthquake is composed of 3 forces

A

stress, strain, strneght

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4
Q

stress of an earthquake is

A

force per area

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5
Q

strain of an earthquake is

A

% distortion

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6
Q

strength of an earthquake is

A

rocks break at critical values

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7
Q

rocks deform ____, then rebound during an earthquake rupture

A

elastically

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8
Q

when the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks along the fault, it ___

A

slips

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9
Q

when the fault slips, it ____

A

releases the stress suddenly which causes an earthquake

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10
Q

____ ____ are ground vibrations caused by rocks slipping along opposite sides of a fault

A

seismic waves

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11
Q

why do earthquakes occur

A

elastic rebound theory,

fault rupture

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12
Q

where does the rupture of an earthquake begin

A

focus

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13
Q

machines that record seismic waves generated by earthquakes

A

seismographs

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14
Q

where are seismic waves generated

A

generated at earthquake focus

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15
Q

___ ___ travel over earth’s surface

A

surface waves

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16
Q

___ ___ and ___ ____ travel through earth’s interior

A

primary waves and secondary waves

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17
Q

seismic waves arrive in which order

A

primary, secondary, and surface

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18
Q

body waves travel where

A

through earth

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19
Q

surface waves travel where

A

along earth’s surface

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20
Q

2 types of surface waves

A

Rayleigh and love waves

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21
Q

2 types of body waves

A

P/S waves

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22
Q

have a push/ pull compressional motion (slinky)
travel through solids, liquids, and gases,
greatest velocity of all earthquake waves
4.8km/sec in continental crust

A

primary (P) waves

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23
Q

up-down motion
travels only through solids
slower velocity than P waves
3km/sec in continental crust

A

S waves

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24
Q

place within earth where earthquake waves originate

A

focus

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25
Q

point on the surface directly above the focus

A

epicenter

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26
Q

intersection of 3 circles from 3 recording stations is the

A

epicenter

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27
Q

each release in magnititude releases ___ times more energy

A

32

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28
Q

measure of the degree of earthquake shaking at a given locale based on the amount of damage

A

mercalli intensity

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29
Q

introduced by Charles Richter in 1935

measures the amplitude of sesmic waves

A

magnitude

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30
Q

measure very large earthquakes

derived from the amount of displacement that occurs along a fault zone and rupture area

A

moment magnitude (Mw)

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31
Q

causes pressure in pores between grains to increase and turns the substrate into a fluid

A

liquefaction of the ground

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32
Q

during liquefaction

A

saturated material turns fluid and underground objects may float to the surface

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33
Q

when is amplitude of shaking the ground greatest?

A

unconsolidated sediment and artificial fill

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34
Q

liquefactions sometimes causes

A

sand volcanoes or sand boils

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35
Q

harbor wave

A

tsunami

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36
Q

formed by something that rapidly moves large amounts of water

A

tusanmi

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37
Q

uplift of seawater during thrust faulting produces surge of water

A

tsunami

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38
Q

a tsunami is only a few ____ high in the deep ocean

A

cm

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39
Q

how fast do tsunamis travel

A

speed of a jetliner , so early warning systems are possible

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40
Q

tsunami sources from most frequent to less frequent

A

oceanic earthquakes, submarine landslides, volcanoes, meteor impact

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41
Q

estimates the probability that an earthquake of a certain magnitude will occur in a particular area during a specific time

A

earthquake forecasting

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42
Q

usable earthquake prediction has these factors

A

time interval in which quakes occur,
region where quakes occur
magnitude range of predicted quake

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43
Q

two forecasting strategies for earthquakes

A

find a specific precursor

forecast a general pattern

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44
Q

earthquake clustering theory

A

quakes are more likely when there are other quakes

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45
Q

seismic gap theory

A

quakes are due if they have not happened in a while

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46
Q

precursors to earthquakes

A

change in # of quakes, slow ground motion, radon’s emission, electrical resistivity, electromagnetic waves, water chemistry, seismic wave velocity, changes in animal behavior

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47
Q

estimate of the avg amount f time between large eq’s in a given location or on a given fault

A

recurrence interval

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48
Q

reduces eq’s generated forces acting on buildings

A

base isolation

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49
Q

more cohesive to less cohesive

A

damp sand, dry sand, water saturated snad

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50
Q

most common type of meteorite, 75-90% silicon, 10-25% Nickel-iron alloy

A

stony asteroid

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51
Q

likely from core of asteroid, mostly nickel-iron alloy

A

iron asteroid

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52
Q

shows which minerals are stable at depth

A

High P + T experiments

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53
Q

does earth’s magnetic field wander?

A

yes

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54
Q

has earth’s magnetic field reversed/

A

yes

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55
Q

dipole points ot south

A

normal polarity

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56
Q

dipole points to the north

A

reverse polarity

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57
Q

earth’s chemical layers

A

core(iron /nickl/sulfur) –> mantle (silicate material) –> crust (granite/ basaltic rocks)

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58
Q

earth’s physical layers

A

inner core (rigid) –> outer core (liquid) –> mesosphere (rigid) –> asthenosphere –> plastic –> lithosphere (rigid) –. ocean

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59
Q

seismic waves ____/____ at the interfaces between layers within the earth

A

reflect / refract

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60
Q

S waves DO NOT travel where

A

outer core

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61
Q

higher density in ____ vs mantle

A

outer core

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62
Q

describe S waves speed

A

increase in strong lithosphere
slight decrease in speed in weak asthenosphere
increase below asthenosphere in upper mantle
increase below the 410 KM mantle discontinutiy
increase below the upper / lower mantle transition.

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63
Q

geothermal gradient in normal continental crust is ___ to ____ per km

A

20 to 30 C

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64
Q

temperature near base of lithospehre

A

1400 C

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65
Q

outer core temperature

A

3000 C

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66
Q

inner core temperature

A

5000 C

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67
Q

in the p-wave shadow zone

A

no P or S waves recorded

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68
Q

in S wave shadow zone

A

only P waves recorded

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69
Q

p wave shadow zone is from

A

105 -142 due to reaction when they enter / leave the core

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70
Q

S wave shadow zone is from

A

105-180 because they cannot travel through outer core

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71
Q

sphere’s radius or inner core radius is

A

1216 kim

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72
Q

what makes up the inner core

A

iron nickel / iron nickel alloy

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73
Q

outer core radius

A

2270 km

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74
Q

what makes up outer core

A

iron and nickl

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75
Q

lower mantle is call dhte

A

mesophere

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76
Q

lower mantle is made up of

A

peridotite

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77
Q

part of upper mantle

A

asthenosperhe

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78
Q

velocity of seismic waves increases where

A

mohorovicic discontinuity

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79
Q

what separates crust from underlying mantle

A

mohorovicic discontinuity

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80
Q

is part of the crust / upper mantle

A

lithospehree

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81
Q

has a basaltic composition made up of Fe, Mg, SiO2 and is younger than the continental crust

A

oceanic crust

82
Q

lower oceanic crust

A

gabbro

83
Q

upper continental crust

A

basalt

84
Q

continental crust is made up of elements

A

Na, K, SiO2

85
Q

continental crust contains

A

granite

86
Q

theory that outer rigid layer of the earth (lithosphere) is divided into plates that move acrosss the earth’s surface relative to each other

A

plate tectonics

87
Q

who proposed the continental drift theory in 1912

A

weagner

88
Q

evidence for continental drift theory

A

similar rock sequences in Appalachians / Great Britain/ other places
rock sequences contain rocks that form in tropical swamps. environments not found in current geographic locations
evidence of glacial activity where glaciers weren’t
fossils include fresh water creatures that could not swim across the ocean

89
Q

evidence for pangea

A

wegnr noticed the folowing features matched on continents now separated by Atlantic Ocean

90
Q

why was Wegner condemmned

A

bc he could not provide mechanism for movement

91
Q

conviction in mantle could be ____ to drive movement of continents

A

mechanism

92
Q

who proposed mantle convention theory in 1919

A

Arthur holmes

93
Q

evidence for mantle conviction theory

A

seafloor bathymetry, seafloor ages, magnetic stripes on seafloor, younger seafloor = underwater mountains

94
Q

subduction zones = ____ margins

A

destructive margins

95
Q

mid-ocean ridges = _____

A

constructive margins

96
Q

at transform boundaries

A

crust is not created or destroyed

97
Q

transform boundaries

A 
faults connect segments of a divergent boundary
mountains  = none (small)
earthquakes are shallow
no volcanoes
san Andreas fault
slide past each other
98
Q

at divergent boudnaires

A

crust is created. youngest crust on planet at this boundary

99
Q

divergent boundaires

A 
yes for mountains
eq's shallow
yes to volcanoes
example mid Atlantic ridge, East African rift, red sea
separate
100
Q

at convergent boundaries

A

Collin of two continental plates . crust is not created/ destoryed

101
Q

convergent boundaires

A 
mountains are the highest
eq's are shallow-moderate
no volcanoes 
Himalayas 
slam into each other
102
Q

at convergent subduction boundary

A

crust is destroyed

103
Q

what happens at convergent subduction boudnary

A

collision of two oceanic plates of collision of oceanic and continental

104
Q

ocean-ocean boundaries form what

A

volcanoes on ocean floor/ volcanic island arcs

105
Q

examples of ocean-ocean boundaries

A

Mariana / Tonga islands

106
Q

convergen subduction

A 
produces deep oceanic trenches
forms mountains
forms volcanoes 
eq's shallow- deep
examples - andes mountains
107
Q

originate deep within asthenosphere as molten rock which rises/ melts through the lithosphere plate forming a large volcanic mass at a hotspot

A

mantle plumes

108
Q

where plates meet/ interact are ____

A

active margins

109
Q

solid rock, located in crust / upper mantle, begins to melt

A

magma

110
Q

to melt rocks at lower crust/ upper mantle we also need

A

additional heat
pressure
volatiles
partial meltin

111
Q

equilibrium that exists between parts of the earth’s crust which behaves as if it consists of blocks floating on the underlying mantle. rises if material is removed. sinks if material is deposited

A

isostasy

112
Q

volcanoes are formed from what

A

igneous rocks

113
Q

cools and solidifies beneath earth’s surface (gabbros, diorite, granite)

A

intrusive igneous

114
Q

cools and solidifies on earth’s surface (basalt, andesite, rhyolite)

A

extrusive igneous rocks

115
Q

molten or partially molten rock beneath earth’s surface

A

magma

116
Q

molten (solid) igneous rocks on earth’s surface

A

lava

117
Q

factors that determine the violence of an eruption

A

composition of magma, temperature of magma, amount of gases in magma

118
Q

measure of a material’s resistance to flow

A

viscosity

119
Q

factors affecting viscosity

A

temperatues
composition
dissolved gases (volatiles)

120
Q

higher temperature =

A

less viscous

121
Q

higher silica content = ___ viscosity

lower silica content = ____ fluid

A

higher viscoity

more fluid

122
Q

example of high silica

A

rhyolitic lava

123
Q

example of low silica

A

basaltic lava

124
Q

dissolved gases (volatiles) expand when they are near

A

the surface

125
Q

least to greatest for composition / silica content / viscosity/ gas content / and ability to form prochalstic

A

basaltic (mafic) —> andesitic–> rhyolite (felsic)

126
Q

long chains of silicon tetrahedra increase

A

magma viscosity

127
Q

viscous magma produces more

A

violent eruptions

128
Q

basaltic lavas are more

A

fluid

129
Q

pahoehoe lava is

A

braids in ropes

130
Q

Aa lava is

A

rough , jagged blocks

131
Q

gases from magma / volcanoes

A

5% of magma by weight

mainly water vapor / carbon dioxide

132
Q

pyroclastic materials are

A

fire fragmenets

133
Q

pumice is from

A

frothy lavafr

134
Q

lapilli is

A

walnut size

135
Q

cinders are

A

pea-sized

136
Q

conduit

A

pipe carrels gas-rich magma to surface

137
Q

vent

A

surface opening

138
Q

steep-walled depression at the summit

A

crater

139
Q

summit-depression greater than 1 kim

A

caldera

140
Q

broad, slightly domed
primarily made of basaltic (fluid) lava
generally large size
mayan loa in hawaii

A

shield volcanoes

141
Q

built from ejected lava fragments
steeep slope angle
small size
occur in groups

A

cinder cones

142
Q 
most = adjacent to pacific ocean
large size
interbedded lavas and pyroclastic
most violent
Mt. Rainer , guatemala
A

stratovolcanoes (composite cone)

143
Q

lahar

A

volcanic mudflow

144
Q

nuee ardente

A

fiery cloud

145
Q

resistant vents left standing after erosion removed volcanoes cone
ship rock, NM

A

volcanic necks

146
Q

what controls eruption styel

A

magma composition
magma temp
gas content of magma

147
Q

why is there a volcanoe in
italy
hawaiii
kenya

A

italy - plate tectonic convergence zone
hawaii = hot spot
kenya - continentla rift zone

148
Q

ocean -ocean convergent plate boundary example

A

Aleutian Islands, Japanese archipelago

149
Q

examples of hotspots

A

hawaii, yellowstone

150
Q

general term that refers to all changes in the original form and/or size of a rock or body

A

deformation

151
Q

most crustal deformation occurs where?

A

plate margins

152
Q

deformation incise faulting or rigid rocks that can be ___

A

bent

153
Q

brittle rocks are in

A

shallow crust

154
Q

ductile rocks are in

A

deeper crust

155
Q

permanet deformation , rock remains deformed

A

plastic

156
Q

like a spring, release stress, and rock returns to original shape

A

elastic

157
Q

strain accumulates to a point where the rock breaks (earthquakes

A

brittle

158
Q

ductile rocks are what type of deformation

A

plastic

159
Q

factors that influence the strength of a rocks

A

temperature and confining pressure
rock/mineral type
time
strain rate

160
Q

3 types of stress

A

compressive
tensional
shear

161
Q

squeeze and shorten a bodyq

A

compressive stress

162
Q

stretch a body and tend to pull it apart

A

tenionsal stress

163
Q

push two sides in opposite directions (twist or tears)

A

shearing

164
Q

the 3 types of stress will determine what

A

what type of deformation will occur

165
Q

determines whether a material behaves in a brittle of ductile fashion

A

strain rate

166
Q

basic source of geologic information in the field

A

outcrop

167
Q

represent the rock formation exposed at earth’s surface

A

geologic maps

168
Q

diagrams showing the features that would be visible if vertical slices were made through part of the crust

A

geologic cross sections

169
Q

orientation of a horizontal line within a plane

A

strike

170
Q

angle of a layer of rock is tiled with respect to the horizontal

A

dip

171
Q

rocks bent into a series of waves— most ___ result from compressional forces which shorten and thicken the crust (ductile, plastics)

A

folds

172
Q

upfolded or arched, rock layers (A-shaped), oldest rocks in center

A

anticlines

173
Q

downloaded rock layers (U-shaped), youngest rock - center

A

synclines

174
Q

folds in rocks can be what

A

symmetricla
asymmetrical
overturned

175
Q

limbs are mirror images. dip symmetrically from axis plane

A

symmetrical fold

176
Q

limbs are not mirror images . one limb dips more steeply than the others

A

asymmetrical

177
Q

one limb is tiled beyond the vertical

A

overturned

178
Q

where folds die out

A

plunging

179
Q

circular or slightly elongated
upward displacement of rocks
oldest rocks in core
oldest deformation exposed on surface

A

dome

180
Q

circular or slightly elongated
down-warped displacement of rocks
youngest rocks in core

A

basin

181
Q

movement along the inclination (dip) of fault plane

A

dip-slip faults

182
Q

dominant displacement is horizontal and parallel to the trend or strike

A

strike-slip faults

183
Q

rock above the fault surface

A

hanging wall

184
Q

rock below the fault surface

A

footwall

185
Q

hanging wall block moves down
associated with extension
prevalent at spreading center / rifts
caused by tensional foces

A

normal fault

186
Q

hanging wall block moves up
caused by strong compressional forces
reverse fault is > 45 degrees
thrust fault is < 45 degrees

A

reverse/ thrust fault

187
Q

older rocks on top of younger rocks

A

thrust fault has

188
Q

example of normal fault

A

Wasatch fault in utah

189
Q

example of thrust and reverse faults

A

Appalachian mountains ~ 1300 km of crustal shearing

190
Q

large strike-slip fault that cuts through lithospehere

A

transform fault

191
Q

no up-down motion of hanging walls - blocks slide past each other

A

transform faults

192
Q

examples of a right-lateral transform faults

A

san Andreas fault

193
Q

other deformation structures

A

cataclysmic textures, fault breccia , mylonite

194
Q

brittle fractures along which no appreciable displacement has occured

A

joints

195
Q

most ___ are formed when rocks in the outer - most crust has deformed

A

joints

196
Q

extension of continental crust produces normal faults with high dip angles in the upper crust that flatten with depth, forming curved fault surfaces

A

tensional tectonics

197
Q

compression of continental crust occurs on low-angled thrust faults

A

compressive tecctonics

198
Q

shearing of continental crust occurs on a nearly vertical strike-slip fault

A

shearing tectontics

199
Q

example of compressive tectnoics

A

Appalachians / himalays

200
Q

example of shearing tectonics

A

san Andreas fault

201
Q

examples of tensional tectonics

A

mid Atlantic rift
basin and range in west US
lake tanganyika

EAS 2600 (4 decks)

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