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Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy > Test 2: Nervous System > Flashcards

Test 2: Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

Name the major divisions of the nervous system, both anatomical and functional

A

Anatomically - Central and Peripheral NS
Functionally - Sensory and Motor of the PNS

Both sensory and motor divisions have somatic and visceral divisions

The visceral motor divison can be further divided into sympathetic or parasympathetic

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2
Q

What are the primary functions of the nervous system?

A

Receiving sensory input

Monitoring internal and external stimuli

Integrating information

Processing sensory input and initiating response

Controlling muscles and glands

Works with endocrine system to control all other organs

Maintains homeostasis

Establishes mental activity

Consciousness, thinking, memory, emotion

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3
Q

What are the organs of the Central Nervous System?

A

Brain and Spinal cord in the dorsal cavity

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4
Q

What are the organs of the Peripheral nervous system?

A

All nervous tissue outside brain and spinal cord; nerves, ganglia, enteric plexus, sensory receptors

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5
Q

What are the divisions of the PNS?

A

Somatic Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System

Enteric Nervous System

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6
Q

Describe the divisions of the Somatic Nervous System

A

Somatic Afferent (sensory) - convey information from sensory receptors towards the CNS

Somatic Efferent (motor) - convey information away from the CNS towards skeletal muscles under voluntary control

Interneurons connect the two

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7
Q

Describe the divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System

A

Sensory neurons convey information to sensory receptors primarily in visceral organs, involuntary

Two branches:

Sympathetic division - (fight-or-flight): dilates pupils, inhibits saliva, raises heart rate, halts digestive organs, relaxes bladder

Parasympathetic division - (rest-and-digest): constricts pupils, increases saliva, reduces heart rate, stimulates digestive organs, constricts bladder

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8
Q

Describe the Enteric Nervous System

A

Used to be grouped with the autonomic nervous system, brain of the gut

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9
Q

Briefly describe the organization of the PNS with regards to neurons

A

Receptor -> sensory NS -> CNS -> motor NS - Effector

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10
Q

What are neurons? What are their universal properties?

A

Nerve cells in the CNS and PNS

Receive stimuli and transmit action potentials

Three Universal properties:

1) Excitability: response to stimulus (environmental changes)
2) Conductivity: Neuronal response to stimulus is production
3) Secretion: When the signal reaches the synapse a neurotransmitter is scereted and crosses the cleft

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11
Q

Describe Neuroglia

A

Helpers that do not generate or connect nerve impulses, but support and maintain neural networks

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12
Q

List the Neuroglia of the CNS

A

Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Ependymal, Microglia

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13
Q

List the Neuroglia of the PNS

A

Satelitte cells, Schwann cells

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14
Q

Describe Astrocytes

A

In the CNS

Maintain BBB, provide structural support, regulate ion/nutrient/chemical concentrations

Absorb and recycle neurotransmitters

Form scar tissue

Have foot processes that cover surface of neurons and pia mater

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15
Q

Describe Oligodendrocyes

A

In the CNS

Myelinate CNS axons

Wraps around a bunch of axons at once, limited regenerative capcitiy

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16
Q

Describe Ependymal cells

A

In the CNS

Line ventricles of brain and central canal of spinal cord

Produce and maintain cerebrospinal fluid

have cilia that help move fluid

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17
Q

Describe Microglia

A

In the CNS

Remove cell debris, pathogens, waste by phagocytosis

Similar to macrophages, responds to inflammation

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18
Q

Describe Satellite cells

A

In the PNS

Surround neuron cell bodies, regulate nutrient and neurotransmitter levels around neurons in ganglia

Surrounds and insulates nerve soma

Similar to astrocytes

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19
Q

Describe Schwann cells

A

In the PNS

Surrounds axons, responsible for myelination of peripheral axons

Participate in repair process after injury

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20
Q

What’s the purpose of myelination?

A

Lets the electrical signal skip across the axon

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21
Q

Describe the structure of myelin in the PNS

A

Neurilemma - thick outermost coil of myelin sheath that contains nucleus and most of cytoplasm of Schwann cells

Basal lamina - basement membrane that surrounds myelin sheath, Schwann cells

Endoneurium covers basal lamina, thin exterior layer of fibrous connective tissue (collagen and elastin)

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22
Q

Myelination in the CNS

A

Oligodenrocyte wraps around multiple axons, but multiple are needed to cover each fiber

Starts 14 weeks after fertilization, breast milk is important for development

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23
Q

Describe the segmented properties of the Myelin sheath

A

Nodes of Ranvier are gaps between segments

Internodes are the myelin covered segments

Initial segment is the short secition of nerve fiber between axon hillock and 1st glial cell

Trigger zone is the axon hillock and inital segment, role in initating nerve signal

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24
Q

White matter vs gray matter; function and structure

A

White matter is formed from aggregations of myelinated axons

Gray matter lacks myelin, is formed from neuronal cell bodies and dendrites

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25
Q

Anatomy of a neuron, organelles

A

Dendrites - highly branches structures that receive signals and conudcts impulses toward Soma

more dendrites = more information

Soma is control center, contains a nucleus, nucleolus, cytoplasm, lysosomes, golgi complex, has extensive RER granules called Nissl bodies which produce neurotransmitters

Cytoskeleton of microtubules and actin, lots of stuff traveling thorugh

Axon conducts impulses away from cell body

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26
Q

Parts of an axon, named portions

A

Axoplasm - cytoplasm

Axolemma - membrane of axon

Enclosed by Schwann cells and myelin sheath

Axon hillock is space between axon and soma

Initial segment is beginning of axon

Trigger zone is site where action potentials are generated; axon hillock and part of axon nearest cell body

Axon terminal is full of neurotransmitters, sometimes swells into synaptic end bulbs

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27
Q

List the types of neurons, anatomically

A

Multipolar, bipolar, unipolar, anaxonic

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28
Q

List the types of neurons, physiologically

A

Afferent, efferent, interneuron

could also be classfied by secretion of neurotransmitter

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29
Q

Describe a multipolar neuron

A

Has several dendrites and only one axon, located within brain and spinal cord, most common

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30
Q

Describe a Bipolar neuron, what are they used for

A

Have two rows coming off, the dendrite has just one row before it branches

One main dendrite and one axon

Used for special senses: sight, smell, hearing, balance

retina, eye, inner ear, olfactory area of brain

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31
Q

Describe a unipolar neuron

A

has one axon that extends from body and divides, goes both directions, functions as both axon and dendritic root depending on direction

touch or stretching

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32
Q

Describe an Anaxonic neuron

A

many dendrites but no axon

No action potentials

Helps in visual processes

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33
Q

Describe the factors behind conduction speed

A

Fiber diameter and presence of myelin, temperature also plays a role

Larger fibers have more surface area and conduct signals more rapidly

Myelin further speeds conduction

Different areas need different speeds

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34
Q

How many cranial nerves and spinal nerves are there?

A

12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves

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35
Q

What is necessary for the regneration of nerve fibers

A

Soma is intact

Some neurolemma remains

Nerve growth factor

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36
Q

What happens to the portion of the nerve fiber distal to the injury during regeneration?

A

It degenerates

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37
Q

Describe the general steps with regeneration of a nerve fiber?

A

Normal nerve fiber is cut - degerantion of distal portion, muscle wasting

Regrowth - schwann cells, regeneration tube

Late regeneration - Regeneration tube guides axon

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38
Q

Describe in detail what happens when a normal nerve fiber is cut

A

without new proteins distal portion degenerates

Macrophages clear debris

Muscle wasting

Soma gets swollen as it can’t send its signals

Nerve growth factor from target cells ceases, must find new source

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39
Q

Describe in detail what happens in the regrowth step of nerve regeneration

A

Schwann cells come in, produce cell adhesion molecules and nerve growth factor

Regeneration tube forms from schwann cells, basal lamina, neurilemma

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40
Q

Describe in detail what happens during the late regeneration stage of nerve fiber regeneration

A

Regeneration tube guides growing axon sprout back to synapse and target cell

The nerve is unlikely to innervate the same muscle fiber in the same way, likely attaches to another one

Soma shrinks to its original size, reinnervated fibers regrow

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41
Q

Describe Nerve Growth Factor

A

Protein secreted by glands, muscles, glial cells that binds to receptors on axon terminals

Prevents apoptosis in growing neurons

Enables growing neurons to make contact with their target cells

Rita Levi-Montalcini isolated in 1950s

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42
Q

What are the two possible types of signals a neuron can communicate with?

A

Graded potentials/local potentials and action potentials

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43
Q

Compare a graded potential with an action potential

A

Graded potentials / Local Potentials-

Short-distance communication; signals from dendrites

Reversible, graded

Can be either excitatory or inhibitory, if the graded potential is high enough to make it to the trigger zone an action potential occurs down the axon

Action potentials-

Long-distance communication

Non-reversible

Occurs if the graded potential is high enough

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44
Q

List the steps of an action potential

A

The resting membrane potential is the level at which the neuron normally sits at.

1) The local potential rises as Na+ slowly depolarize the membrane
2) Threshold is at -55mv, once the threshold is reached voltage-regulated Na+ gates open rapidly, all or none
3) Depolarization of membrane produces a spike in voltage, Na+ gates close as potential passes 0 mV, K+ gates start to open slowly
4) Peak at 35 mV
5) Repolarization as K+ leaves neuron to drop membrane potential back toward RMP
6) Hyperpolarization as K+ stay open long enough to drop potential slightly below RMP
7) Return to RMP
8) Refractory periods

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45
Q

Describe the two refractory periods

A

Absolute - voltage gated na channels are open, K channels are open, na channels are inactivating

Relative - voltage gated k channels are still open, na channels are resting

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46
Q

Where are the channels needed for an action potential to occur?

A

Voltage gated are found on axon and axon hillock, needed for action potential

Very few in myelin covered regions, many in nodes of Ranvier

  • Fast Na+ diffusion occurs between nodes
  • Saltatory conduction is the signal jumping from node to node
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47
Q

How does the body determine perception of stimulus or extent of response

A

Frequency of neuron firing, number of neurons recruited

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48
Q

Describe the three types of Fibers

A

A Fibers

-Large, fast, myelinated neurons that carry touch and pressure sensations; many motor neurons are also of this type

B Fibers

-Medium size and speed, myelinated visceral sensory and autonomic preganglionic neurons

C Fibers

-smallest and slowest

49
Q

Structure of a synapse

A

Presynaptic neurons have synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter

Postsynaptic neurons have receptors and ligand-regulated ion channels

50
Q

Chemical conduction at a neuron synapse

A

Calcium converts electrical signals into protein signals, vesicles release their neurotransmitters into synapse, Ligand gated channels on other side

51
Q

Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

Both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are present in the CNS and PNS

Same neurotransmitter may be excitatory in some locations and inhibitory in others

Ex: ACh is released by many PNS neurons, excitatory at some locations and inhibitory in others

52
Q

Integration

A

Integration is the process of combining excitatory and inhibitory inputs and responding accordingly

Occurs repeatedly as interneurons are activated in higher parts of the brain (thalamus, cerebral cortex)

53
Q

Four major parts of the brain

A

Brainstem, Cerebullum, Diencephalon, Cerebrum

54
Q

Describe the brainstem, subsections

A

Containuation of spinal cord with different anatomy and physiology

Medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, reticular formation

55
Q

Describe the Medulla oblongata

A

Contains all ascending and descending tracts between spinal cord and cerebrum

Regulates mandatory body functions

  • Cardiovascular center
  • Respiratory rhythmicity center
  • Vomiting, coughing, sneezing centers
56
Q

Describe the Pons

A

Directly above medulla, connects spinal cord with brain

Breathing (inhalation and exhalation)

57
Q

Describe the Midbrain

A

Hard to see without dissection, above pons

Contains:

Red nucleus

-Voluntary movements

Cerebral aqueduct for CSF formation and circulation (ependymal cells)

Superior and inferior colliculi

-Visual auditory reflexes

Substantia nigra

  • Produces L-dopa -> dopamine
  • Parkinson’s association
58
Q

Describe the Reticular formation

A

Dorsal to rest of brainstem

Reticular activating system is the ascending portion

  • Sensory axons project to cerebral cortex
  • Coordinates what goes where, filters out insignificant information
  • Maintains consciousness, wake, alertness, sleep
59
Q

Describe the Cerebellum

A

“Little Brain”, second largest part

Posture, equilibrium, balance

60
Q

What three things make up the Diencephalon

A

Thalamus, Epithalamus, Hypothalamus

61
Q

Describe the function of the thalamus

A

Pain, sleep, temperature, pressure is related to thalamus en route to cerebral cortex

Conjunction with attendant memories and emotions evoked

62
Q

Describe the function of the epithalamus

A

secretes melatonin; sleep and biological clock

63
Q

Describe the function of the hypothalamus

A

Controls homeostatic functions

  • Autonomic nervous system
  • Coordinates between NS and endocrine system
  • Body temperature
  • hunger/thirst
  • Internal clock
64
Q

Describe the cerebrum

A

Largest part

Consists of external gray matter cerebral cortex, internal cerebral white matter, and gray matter nuclei deep within white matter

Mountains: gyri, Valleys: Sulci, Canyon: Fissure

Integration of senses with behavior

Longitudinal fissure separates into right and left hemispheres

Central sulcus divides anterior frontal lobe from parietal lobe

Occipital, parietal, frontal, temporal lobe

65
Q

Describe the dentate gyrus

A

part of hippocampal circuit, thought to contribute to formation of new memories in spontaneous exploration of novel environments

66
Q

Describe the hippocampus

A

Learning and memory, partially affected in alzheimers

67
Q

Describe the cranial meninges, list them

A

Continues with spinal meninges

Mirror their structure and function

Anchors the brain in space

Dura, arachnoid, and pia mater

68
Q

Dura mater

A

tough outer layer

external periosteal layer, internal meningeal layer

dense irregular connective tissue, similar to skin

surrounds and supports venous channels carry blood toward the brain

69
Q

Arachnoid mater

A

spidery, elastic (dense connective tissue)

Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid

70
Q

Pia Mater

A

thin and delicate

71
Q

Blood Brain Barrier

A

Simple squamous vascular endothelium

Astrocytes

Tight junctions

Oxygen, CO2, Water, lipid soluble freely enter and leave CNS; not water soluble

Some travel across through active transport

72
Q

Cerebral Spinal fluid, 3 Properties

A

Clear, colorless, produced by ependymal cells

Circulates through brain ventricles and spinal cord and flows over and around the brain and cord in the subarachnoid space

1) Mechanical protection

Brain floats in it, CSF absorbs shock

2) Homeostatic

PH affects bloodflow, etc

3) Circulation

Medium for nutrient and waste transportation

73
Q

Cranial Nerve I

A

Olfactory

74
Q

Cranial Nerve 2

A

Optic

75
Q

Cranial Nerve III

A

Oculomotor

76
Q

Cranial Nerve IV

A

Trochlear

77
Q

Cranial Nerve V

A

Trigeminal

78
Q

Cranial Nerve VI

A

Abducens

79
Q

Cranial Nerve VII

A

Facial

80
Q

CNVIII

A

Vestibulocochlear

81
Q

CNIX

A

Glossopharyngeal

82
Q

Cranial Nerve X

A

Vagus

83
Q

Cranial Nerve XI

A

Spinal Accessory nerve

84
Q

Cranial Nerve XIII

A

Glossopharyngeal nerve

85
Q

Multiple sclerosis

A

Oligodendrocytes and mylein sheaths in the CNS deteriorate

Nerve conduction disrupted

Autoimmune disease, BBB breaks down and macrophages come into nerves tissue, destroys myelin

86
Q

Tay-Sachs disease

A

Hereditary disorder

Abnormal accumulation of glycolipid called GM2 in myelin sheath

Blindness, loss of coordination, dementia

Fatal before age 4

87
Q

Leu Gehrigs Disease or ALS

A

Similar to CET

Correlated to concussions, high contact sports

Nerve fiber dyes, waste of skeletal muscle

88
Q

Alzheimers Disease

A

100,000 deaths a year

Memory loss, moody, combative,

Deficiences of ACh and nerve growth factor

Buildup of B-amyloid plaques

89
Q

Parkinsons

A

Loss of motor function with no recovery

Degeration of dopamine releasing neurons

Treatment is L-dopa

90
Q

Brain tumors

A

Tumors are masses of rapidly dividing cells

Interfere with circuitry

Difficult to treat with BBB

Gliomas are malignant and rapid growth

91
Q

Einsteins brain, theories of intelligence

A

Theory 1: More glial cells

Theory 2: Less pronounced Corpus callosum, left and right brain friends

92
Q

Serial killer brain, theories

A

Theory 1: Frontal lobe abnormality, less active

Theory 2: Takes multiple parts, orbital cortex involved in ethics and decision making; Warrior gene MAO-A that regulates serotonin; funky childhood

93
Q

Belief in God, brain activity

A

Religious people have increased activity in frontal lobe and language areas when in prayer, praying to god is similar to talking to people

Thinking about god alters neural circuitry

94
Q

Chapman’s Protocol

A

Sodium pentothal - first used, renders someone unconscious

Pancuronium bromide - paralyzing agent, arrests breathing

Potassium chloride - lowers resting electrical potential, stops heart

95
Q

Spinal Cord motor vs sensory tracts location

A

More motor tracts superior, more sensory tracts inferior

96
Q

Spinal meninges

A

Dura mater - encloses entire cord

Arachnoid mater - delicate, avascular, attached to dura and forms roof of subarachnoid space where CSF circulates

Pia mater - deepest, transparent, filled with blood and nutrients

97
Q

Epidural space

A

between the dura mater and more superficial ligamentum flavum

Epidural anesthesia has a needle placed between bones of posterior spine until it penetrates the ligamentum yet remains superficial to dura mater

98
Q

Subdural space

A

Between dura and arachnoid

Potential, dura and arachnoid firmly attached

99
Q

Lumbar puncture

A

a needle inserted into the subarachnoid space to withdraw CSF and diagnose or reduce pressure

Typically around L3,L4; below spinal cord

100
Q

Two enlargements of spine

A

Cervical area C4 - T1

Motor output and sensory input to/from arms

Lumbar area T9 - T12

Motor output and sensory input to/from legs

101
Q

Roots

A

Bundles of axons that connect spinal nerve to cord

Posterior root ganglion contain sensory neurons

ganglion is a group of cell bodies

Anterior root contains motor neurons

102
Q

Gray and white matter, spinal cord

A

Gray matter is interior in butterfly shape, integration of IPSPs and EPSPs

Anterior (larger wings), Posterior, Lateral gray horns

White matter contains major sensory and motor tracts

Anterior and posterior lateral columns

103
Q

Central canal

A

entire length of cord down the center, filled with CSF

104
Q

Tracts

A

Tracts are bundles of neuronal axons all traveling to the same place. PNS

Names combine words that denote origin and ending place

105
Q

Spinothalamic tract

A

spinal cord to brain, afferent tract

sensations of pain, warmth, coolness, itching, tickling, deep pressure

106
Q

Corticospinal tract

A

brain to spinal cord, efferent tract

Voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

107
Q

Vestibulospinal tract

A

brain to spinal cord, efferent tract

Visual stimulus

108
Q

Spinal Nerves Designation

A

C1-8, T1-12, L1-5, S1-5, Co1

109
Q

Spinal Nerve Pairs

A

Cervical

8 Pairs, C1 - C8

Thoracic

12 Pairs, T1 -T12

Lumbar

5 Pairs, L1 - L5

Sacral

5 Pairs, S1 - S5

Coccygeal

1 Pair

110
Q

Spinal nerve structure

A

Axon - ensheathed by endoneurinum

formed by collagen fibers and elastin

Fasicles - surrounded by perineurium

formed by collagen fibers and elastin

Entire nerve - ensheated by epineurium

Formed by fibrous tissue

111
Q

Branches of spinal nerves

A

Spinal nerves exit CNS into PNS, split into 3 major branches

Anterior Ramus, Posterior ramus, Rami communicantes

Rami are anterior division of spinal nerves

112
Q

Nerve Plexuses

A

A long braided rope of nerves

All anterior to spine

Cervical Plexus, brachial plexus, Celiac solar plexus, Lumbar plexus, Sacral plexus, Coccygeal plexus

113
Q

Cervical plexus

A

Anterior rami of C1 - C5

Serves head, neck, diaphragm

Highlighted nerve: Phrenic nerves supply major muscle of respiration

114
Q

Brachial plexus

A

Anterior rami of C5-C8 and T1

Serbes shoulders and upper limbs

Divided into roots -> trunks -> divisions -> cords -> nerves

risk takers don’t cautiously behave

Erb’s palsy

paralysis of arm as infants head and neck pulled toward side at same time as shoulders pass through birth canal

Paralysis of arm at any age following trauma

Carpal tunnel syndrome

median nerve injury due to repetive motions of hand and wrist

Highlighted nerve: Ulnar nerve

largest unprotected nerve in human, supplies medial half of hand

striking medial epicondyle of humerus = funny bone

Highlighted nerve: Long thoracic nerve

Supplies serratus anterior

Damage cause winged scapula, arm cannot be abducted byond horizontal position

115
Q

Lumbar plexus

A

Anterior rami of L1 - L4

Supplies anterolateral abdominal wall, external genitalia, lower limbs

Highlighted nerve: Femoral and obturator nerves

116
Q

Sacral plexus

A

Anterior rami of L4-L5, S1-S4

Sciatic nerve is largest in body

117
Q

Coccygeal plexus

A

Anterior rami of S4-S5

Small area of skin in coccygeal region

118
Q

Damage to the spinal cord

A

Transection of spinal cord means severing of ascending and descending tracts

At base of skull - death by asphyxiation

Upper cervical area - quadriplegia

Between the cord enlargements - parplegia

Less sensation, can’t sweat, less body hair, can’t cough

119
Q

Tracts, Nerves, Ganglion, Nucleus, Plexus

A

Bundle of Axons

Tracks (CNS): A series of axons grouped together in CNS

Nerves (PNS): A bundle of axons and their sheaths that connects CNS to sensory receptors, muscles, and glands

Group of cell bodies

Nucleus (CNS): clusters of neurons

Ganglion (PNS): collection of neuron/nerve cell bodies

Plexus (PNS): extensive network of axons, sometimes neuron cell bodies

Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy (10 decks)

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