test 2 key terms Flashcards
Recall memory:
Reporting
details of a previously witnessed
event or person
Extrajudicial:
Term applied to
measures taken to keep young
offenders out of court and out of
custody (e.g., giving a warning or
making a referral for treatment)
supervision order
youth can serve their sentence in the
community as long as imposed conditions are met
Internalizing problems:
Emotional difficulties such as
anxiety, depression, and obsessions
experienced by a youth
Externalizing problems:
Behavioural difficulties such as
delinquency, fighting, bullying,
lying, or destructive behaviour
experienced by a youth
Attention deficit/hyperactivitydisorder:
A disorder in a youth
characterized by a persistent pattern
of inattention and hyperactivity or
impulsivity
Oppositional defiant disorder:
A disorder in a youth characterized
by a persistent pattern of negativistic,
hostile, and defiant behaviours
Conduct disorder:
A disorder
characterized by a persistent pattern
of behaviour in which a youth
violates the rights of others or ageappropriate
societal norms or rules
Reactive aggression is described as
an emotionally aggressive response to aperceived threat or frustration..
proactive aggression is
aggression directed
at achieving a goal or receiving positive reinforcers
Bandura’s (1965) social learning theory suggests that
children learn their behaviour
from observing others. Children are more likely to imitate behaviour that receives positive
reinforcement than behaviour that receives negative reinforcement or punishment
children who are
highly aggressive and engage in antisocial behaviour often have witnessed parents, siblings,
or grandparents engage in aggression and antisocial behaviour
There are three key elements to a
youth gang:
- The individuals involved must identify themselves as a
group (e.g., they may have a group name and group
colours) .
2. Other people see the members as a distinct group.
3. Group members commit “delinquent” acts, often
imposing on the rights of others in the community.
Resilient:
Characteristic of a child
who has multiple risk factors but
who does not develop problem
behaviours or negative symptoms
the ability to overcome stress and adversity
a number of areas in which protectiveness can be present:
genetic variables,
personality dispositions, supportive family environments, and community
supports.
Protective factors can be grouped into three categories:
(1) individual, (2) familial,
and (3) social/external factors
Primary interventionstrategies:
Strategies that are
implemented prior to any violence
occurring, with the goal of
decreasing the likelihood that
violence will occur later on
Secondary intervention strategies:
Strategies that attempt
to reduce the frequency of violence
Secondary intervention strategies are directed at young offenders who have either
had contact with the police or criminal justice system or have demonstrated behavioural
problems at school. The goal of these strategies is to provide social and clinical
services so that young offenders do not go on to commit serious violence
diversion programs, alternative and vocational education, family therapy,
and skills training
Tertiary intervention strategies:
Strategies that attempt to prevent
violence from reoccurring
these intervention efforts are actually more
“treatment” than prevention, and the recipients are often chronic and serious young
offenders. The goal of tertiary intervention strategies is to minimize the impact of
existing risk factors and foster the development of protective factors, which may
reduce the likelihood that the at-risk adolescent will engage in future offending
Parent-focused interventions:
Interventions directed at assisting
parents to recognize warning signs
for later youth violence and/or
training parents to effectively
manage any behavioural problems
that arise
Family-supportiveinterventions:
Interventions
that connect at-risk families to
various support services
Why Are Children More Suggestible Than Adults?
Social Compliance or Social Pressure
Criterion-based contentanalysis:
Analysis that uses
criteria to distinguish truthful from
false statements made by children
Statement validity analysis:
A comprehensive protocol to
distinguish truthful or false
statements made by children
containing three parts: (1) a
structured interview of the child
witness, (2) a systematic analysis of
the verbal content of the child’s
statements (criterion-based content
analysis), and (3) the application of
the statement validity checklist
Step-wise interview:
Interview
protocol with a series of “steps”
designed to start the interview
with the least leading and directive
type of questioning, and then
proceed to more specific forms of
questioning, as necessary
Narrative elaboration:
An
interview procedure whereby
children learn to organize their
story into relevant categories:
participants, settings, actions,
conversation/affective states, and
consequences
A card containing a line drawing is available for each category (see Figure 6.1 for
four of them). These visual cues help children remember to state all that they can.
Children practise telling stories with each card before being questioned about the
critical event.
False memory syndrome:
Term
to describe clients’ false beliefs
that they were sexually abused as
children, despite having no
memories of this abuse until they
enter therapy to deal with some
other psychological problem, such
as depression or substance abuse
Historic child sexual abuse:
Allegations of child abuse having
occurred several years, often
decades, prior to when they are
being prosecuted
Elimination lineup:
Lineup
procedure for children that first
asks them to pick out the person
who looks most like the culprit
from the photos displayed. Next,
children are asked whether the
most similar person selected is in
fact the culprit
Competency inquiry:
Questions
posed to child witnesses under age
14 to determine whether they are
able to communicate the evidence
and understand the difference
between the truth and a lie, and, in
the circumstances of testifying, to
see if they feel compelled to tell
the truth
In need of protection:
A term
used to describe a child’s need to
be separated from his or her
caregiver because of maltreatment
Incidence:
Number of new childmaltreatment
cases in a specific
population occurring in a given
time period, usually a year
Prevalence:
In the study of child
abuse, the proportion of a
population at a specific point in
time that was maltreated during
childhood
risk factors—
factors that increase the likelihood for emotional and/or
behavioural problems—have been identified for physical and sexual abuse. These
can be categorized as child factors, parental factors, and social factors
Recognition memory:
Determining whether a previously
seen item or person is the same as
what is currently being viewed
Estimator variables
are those variables
or factors that are present at the time of the crime and that cannot be changed.
These can include the age of the witness, the amount of lighting, the presence of a
weapon, and whether the witness was intoxicated.
System variables
are those variables or factors that
can be manipulated to increase (or decrease) eyewitness accuracy, such as the type of
procedure used by police to interview the witness or the type of lineup procedure
used to present the suspect to the witness. These variables are under the control of
the justice system.
The three general dependent variables in eyewitness studies
(1) recall of the event/crime, (2) recall of the perpetrator, and (3) recognition of
the perpetrator.
With openended recall , also known as a free narrative , witnesses are asked
to either write or orally state all they remember about the event without the officer (or experimenter)
asking questions. With this type of recall, the witness also may be asked to describe the perpetrator.
direct question recall,
witnesses are asked a series of specific questions about the crime or the perpetrator. For example, the
witness may be asked the colour of the getaway car or the length of the perpetrator’s hair.
Memory conformity:
When
what one witness reports
influences what another witness
reports
Misinformation effect:
Phenomenon where a witness who
is presented with inaccurate
information after an event will
incorporate that misinformation
into a subsequent recall task. Also
known as the post-event
information effect
Post-event information
effect: Phenomenon where a
witness who is presented with
inaccurate information after an
event will incorporate that
misinformation into a subsequent
recall task. Also known
Misinformation acceptancehypothesis:
Explanation for the
misinformation effect where the
incorrect information is provided
because the witness guesses what
the officer or experimenter wants
the response to be
Source misattributionhypothesis:
Explanation for the
misinformation effect where the
witness has two memories, the
original and the misinformation;
however, the witness cannot
remember where each memory
originated or the source of each
Memory impairmenthypothesis:
Explanation for the
misinformation effect where the
original memory is replaced with
the new, incorrect information
Procedures That Help Police Interview
Eyewitnesses
Hypnosis
hypnotically refreshed memory
A hypnotized witness may be able to produce a greaternumber of details than a nonhypnotized witness; this phenomenon is termed
Cognitive interview:
Interview
procedure for use with
eyewitnesses based on principles of
memory storage and retrieval
(1) reinstating the context, (2) reporting everything, (3) reversing order, and (4) changing perspective.
Enhanced cognitive interview:
Interview procedure that includes various principles of social dynamics in addition to the memory retrieval principles used in the original cognitive interview
1. Rapport building. An officer should spend time building rapport with the witness
and make him or her feel comfortable and supported.
2. Supportive interviewer behaviour. A witness’s free recall should not be interrupted;
pauses should be waited out by the officer, who should express attention to what the witness is saying.
3. Transfer of control. The witness, not the officer, should control the flow of the interview; the witness is the expert—that is, the witness, not the officer, was the
person who saw the crime.
4. Focused retrieval. Questions should be open-ended and not leading or suggestive; after free recall, the officer should use focused memory techniques to facilitate retrieval.
5. Witness-compatible questioning. An officer’s questions should match the witness’s
thinking; if the witness is talking about clothing, the officer should be asking about clothing.
Recognition Memory includes
■ Live lineups or photo arrays
■■ Video surveillance records
■■ Voice identification
A fair lineup is
one in which the suspect does not stand out from the other lineup members. For example, if skin colour was not mentioned, then a lineup could be constructed with one white face (the suspect) and five black faces. Thus, the lineup would be unfair or biased.
Target-present lineup:
A lineup
that contains the perpetrator
Target-absent lineup:
A lineup
that does not contain the
perpetrator but rather an innocent
suspect
Relative judgment:
Witness
compares lineup members to one
another and the person who looks
most like the perpetrator is
identified
Sequential lineup:
more likely to make an absolute judgment
each lineup member is compared with the witness’s memory of the perpetrator and the witness decides
whether it is the perpetrator.
Alternative lineup procedure where the lineup
members are presented serially to
the witness, and the witness must
make a decision as to whether the
lineup member is the perpetrator
before seeing another member.
Also, a witness cannot ask to see
previously seen photos and is
unaware of the number of photos
to be shown
Absolute judgment:
Witness
compares each lineup member to
his or her memory of the
perpetrator to decide whether the
lineup member is the perpetrator
Showup:
Identification procedure that shows one person to the witness: the suspect
The witness is asked whether the person is the perpetrator.
the witness is aware of whom the police suspect, and this knowledge may increase a witness’s likelihood of making an identification that may be false.
Walk-by:
Identification procedure
that occurs in a naturalistic
environment. The police take the
witness to a public location where
the suspect is likely to be. Once the
suspect is in view, the witness is
asked whether he or she sees the
perpetrator
Biased lineup:
A lineup that
“suggests” whom the police
suspect and thereby whom the
witness should identify
Foil bias.
The suspect is the only lineup member who matches the description of
the perpetrator. For example, the suspect has a beard and moustache while the other lineup members are clean-shaven
Clothing bias.
The suspect is the only lineup member wearing clothing similar to
that worn by the perpetrator. For example, the perpetrator was described as
wearing a blue baseball cap. The suspect is wearing a blue baseball cap while the foils are not
Instruction bias.
The police fail to mention
to the witness that the perpetrator may not
be present; rather, the police imply that the
perpetrator is present and that the witness
should pick him or her out
Cross-race effect:
Phenomenon
of witnesses remembering ownrace
faces with greater accuracy
than faces from other races. Also
known as the other-race effect and
the own-race bias
Weapon Focus
is the term used to describe the phenomenon of a witness’s attention being focused on the perpetrator’s weapon rather than on the perpetrator (Steblay, 1992). The witness will remember less about the crime and perpetrator when a weapon is present than when no weapon is present
Cue-utilization hypothesis:
Proposed by Easterbrook (1959) to
explain why a witness may focus
on the weapon rather than other
details. The hypothesis suggests
that when emotional arousal
increases, attentional capacity
decreases
Voluntary false confession:
A
false confession that is provided
without any elicitation from the
police
Coerced-compliant falseconfession:
A confession that
results from a desire to escape a
coercive interrogation environment
or gain a benefit promised by the
police
(1) escape further interrogation, (2) gain a promised benefit, or (3) avoid a threatened punishment
Coerced-internalized false confession:
A confession that
results from suggestive interrogation
techniques, whereby the confessor
actually comes to believe he or she
committed the crime
(1) a history of substance abuse or some other interference with brain function,
(2) the inability of people to detect discrepancies between what they observed and
what has been erroneously suggested to them, and (3) factors associated with mental
state, such as severe anxiety, confusion, or feelings of guilt
Compliance:
A tendency to go
along with demands made by
people perceived to be in authority,
even though the person may not
agree with them
Internalization:
The acceptance
of guilt for an act, even if the
person did not actually commit the
act
Confabulation:
The reporting of
events that never actually occurred
the degree to which participants made
up details to fit with their confession
The Juries Act
is provincial and territorial legislation that outlines the eligibility criteria
for jury service and how prospective jurors must be selected
Jury summons:
A court order
that states a time and place to go
for jury duty
Representativeness:
A jury
composition that represents the
community where the crime
occurred
Impartiality:
A characteristic of
jurors who are unbiased
Representativeness:
A jury
composition that represents the
community where the crime
occurred
Impartiality
- pre-existing biases
- ignore inadmissible information such as media attention
- no connection to the defendant
3 ways to overcome a biased jury:
1) Change the venue
2) Adjourn to a later date so that memories of the media reports fade. The problem is that witnesses memories fade too
3) challenge for cause = reject biased jurors with a preset questions approved by the judge
main function of a Jury
- To use the wisdom of 12 (rather than the wisdom of 1) to reach a verdict
- To act as the conscience of the community
- To protect against out-of-date laws
- To increase knowledge about the justice system
Jury nullification:
Occurs when
a jury ignores the law and the
evidence, rendering a verdict based
on some other criteria
Chaos theory:
The theory that
when jurors are guided by their
emotions and personal biases
rather than by the law, chaos in
judgments results
Deliberation:
When jury
members discuss the evidence
privately among themselves to
reach a verdict that is then
provided to the court
Polarization:
When individuals
tend to become more extreme in
their initial position following a
group discussion
Leniency bias:
When jurors move
toward greater leniency during
deliberations
Hung jury:
A jury that cannot
reach a unanimous verdict
Crown must decide whether it will retry the case.
Predicting Verdicts
(1) demographic variables, (2) personality traits, (3) attitudes, (4) defendant
characteristics, (5) victim characteristics, and (6) expert testimony.
Black sheep effect:
When
evidence is strong, similarity
between defendant and jury leads
to punitiveness
The Youth Criminal Justice Act’s Key Changes to the Canadian
Criminal Justice System
- Less serious and less violent offences should be kept out of the formal court process.
- The number of extrajudical measures is increased.
- There is a greater focus on prevention and reintegration into the community.
- Transfers to adult court are removed; instead, youth court judges can impose adult sentences.
- The interests and needs of victims are recognized.
How do We Study Juror and Jury Behaviour?
1- Post-trial Interviews - only legal in the US
2 - Archives - no cause and effect
3 - Simulation - no consequences so hard to generalize and mostly university students
4- Field Studies - hard to get access/authorization from courts
4 possible outcomes to the exaplnation model of a jury’s decision
(1) a believer (i.e., favouring the prosecution),
(2) a doubter(i.e., favouring the defense),
(3) a muller (i.e., trying to choose between two or more
plausible stories), or
(4) a puzzler (i.e., unable to formulate a story)
The two personality traits that have been commonly measured in connection to jurors are
authoritarianism and dogmatism
they are more rigid so they side with the prosecution
