test 2 key terms

Question 1

Recall memory:

Answer 1

Reporting

details of a previously witnessed

event or person

Question 2

Extrajudicial:

Answer 2

Term applied to

measures taken to keep young

offenders out of court and out of

custody (e.g., giving a warning or

making a referral for treatment)

Question 3

supervision order

Answer 3

youth can serve their sentence in the

community as long as imposed conditions are met

Question 4

Internalizing problems:

Answer 4

Emotional difficulties such as

anxiety, depression, and obsessions

experienced by a youth

Question 5

Externalizing problems:

Answer 5

Behavioural difficulties such as

delinquency, fighting, bullying,

lying, or destructive behaviour

experienced by a youth

Question 6

Attention deficit/hyperactivitydisorder:

Answer 6

A disorder in a youth

characterized by a persistent pattern

of inattention and hyperactivity or

impulsivity

Question 7

Oppositional defiant disorder:

Answer 7

A disorder in a youth characterized

by a persistent pattern of negativistic,

hostile, and defiant behaviours

Question 8

Conduct disorder:

Answer 8

A disorder

characterized by a persistent pattern

of behaviour in which a youth

violates the rights of others or ageappropriate

societal norms or rules

Question 9

Reactive aggression is described as

Answer 9

an emotionally aggressive response to aperceived threat or frustration..

Question 10

proactive aggression is

Answer 10

aggression directed

at achieving a goal or receiving positive reinforcers

Question 11

Bandura’s (1965) social learning theory suggests that

Answer 11

children learn their behaviour

from observing others. Children are more likely to imitate behaviour that receives positive

reinforcement than behaviour that receives negative reinforcement or punishment

children who are

highly aggressive and engage in antisocial behaviour often have witnessed parents, siblings,

or grandparents engage in aggression and antisocial behaviour

Question 12

There are three key elements to a

youth gang:

Answer 12

1. The individuals involved must identify themselves as a

group (e.g., they may have a group name and group

colours) .
2. Other people see the members as a distinct group.
3. Group members commit “delinquent” acts, often

imposing on the rights of others in the community.

Question 13

Resilient:

Answer 13

Characteristic of a child

who has multiple risk factors but

who does not develop problem

behaviours or negative symptoms

the ability to overcome stress and adversity

Question 14

a number of areas in which protectiveness can be present:

Answer 14

genetic variables,

personality dispositions, supportive family environments, and community

supports.

Question 15

Protective factors can be grouped into three categories:

Answer 15

(1) individual, (2) familial,

and (3) social/external factors

Question 16

Primary interventionstrategies:

Answer 16

Strategies that are

implemented prior to any violence

occurring, with the goal of

decreasing the likelihood that

violence will occur later on

Question 17

Secondary intervention strategies:

Answer 17

Strategies that attempt

to reduce the frequency of violence

Secondary intervention strategies are directed at young offenders who have either

had contact with the police or criminal justice system or have demonstrated behavioural

problems at school. The goal of these strategies is to provide social and clinical

services so that young offenders do not go on to commit serious violence

diversion programs, alternative and vocational education, family therapy,

and skills training

Question 18

Tertiary intervention strategies:

Answer 18

Strategies that attempt to prevent

violence from reoccurring

these intervention efforts are actually more

“treatment” than prevention, and the recipients are often chronic and serious young

offenders. The goal of tertiary intervention strategies is to minimize the impact of

existing risk factors and foster the development of protective factors, which may

reduce the likelihood that the at-risk adolescent will engage in future offending

Question 19

Parent-focused interventions:

Answer 19

Interventions directed at assisting

parents to recognize warning signs

for later youth violence and/or

training parents to effectively

manage any behavioural problems

that arise

Question 20

Family-supportiveinterventions:

Answer 20

Interventions

that connect at-risk families to

various support services

Question 21

Why Are Children More Suggestible Than Adults?

Answer 21

Social Compliance or Social Pressure

Question 22

Criterion-based contentanalysis:

Answer 22

Analysis that uses

criteria to distinguish truthful from

false statements made by children

Question 23

Statement validity analysis:

Answer 23

A comprehensive protocol to

distinguish truthful or false

statements made by children

containing three parts: (1) a

structured interview of the child

witness, (2) a systematic analysis of

the verbal content of the child’s

statements (criterion-based content

analysis), and (3) the application of

the statement validity checklist

Question 24

Step-wise interview:

Answer 24

Interview

protocol with a series of “steps”

designed to start the interview

with the least leading and directive

type of questioning, and then

proceed to more specific forms of

questioning, as necessary

Question 25

Narrative elaboration:

Answer 25

An

interview procedure whereby

children learn to organize their

story into relevant categories:

participants, settings, actions,

conversation/affective states, and

consequences

A card containing a line drawing is available for each category (see Figure 6.1 for

four of them). These visual cues help children remember to state all that they can.

Children practise telling stories with each card before being questioned about the

critical event.

Question 26

False memory syndrome:

Answer 26

Term

to describe clients’ false beliefs

that they were sexually abused as

children, despite having no

memories of this abuse until they

enter therapy to deal with some

other psychological problem, such

as depression or substance abuse

Question 27

Historic child sexual abuse:

Answer 27

Allegations of child abuse having

occurred several years, often

decades, prior to when they are

being prosecuted

Question 28

Elimination lineup:

Answer 28

Lineup

procedure for children that first

asks them to pick out the person

who looks most like the culprit

from the photos displayed. Next,

children are asked whether the

most similar person selected is in

fact the culprit

Question 29

Competency inquiry:

Answer 29

Questions

posed to child witnesses under age

14 to determine whether they are

able to communicate the evidence

and understand the difference

between the truth and a lie, and, in

the circumstances of testifying, to

see if they feel compelled to tell

the truth

Question 30

In need of protection:

Answer 30

A term

used to describe a child’s need to

be separated from his or her

caregiver because of maltreatment

Question 31

Incidence:

Answer 31

Number of new childmaltreatment

cases in a specific

population occurring in a given

time period, usually a year

Question 32

Prevalence:

Answer 32

In the study of child

abuse, the proportion of a

population at a specific point in

time that was maltreated during

childhood

Question 33

risk factors—

Answer 33

factors that increase the likelihood for emotional and/or

behavioural problems—have been identified for physical and sexual abuse. These

can be categorized as child factors, parental factors, and social factors

Question 34

Recognition memory:

Answer 34

Determining whether a previously

seen item or person is the same as

what is currently being viewed

Question 35

Estimator variables

Answer 35

are those variables

or factors that are present at the time of the crime and that cannot be changed.

These can include the age of the witness, the amount of lighting, the presence of a

weapon, and whether the witness was intoxicated.

Question 36

System variables

Answer 36

are those variables or factors that

can be manipulated to increase (or decrease) eyewitness accuracy, such as the type of

procedure used by police to interview the witness or the type of lineup procedure

used to present the suspect to the witness. These variables are under the control of

the justice system.

Question 37

The three general dependent variables in eyewitness studies

Answer 37

(1) recall of the event/crime, (2) recall of the perpetrator, and (3) recognition of

the perpetrator.

Question 38

With openended recall , also known as a free narrative , witnesses are asked

Answer 38

to either write or orally state all they remember about the event without the officer (or experimenter)

asking questions. With this type of recall, the witness also may be asked to describe the perpetrator.

Question 39

direct question recall,

Answer 39

witnesses are asked a series of specific questions about the crime or the perpetrator. For example, the

witness may be asked the colour of the getaway car or the length of the perpetrator’s hair.

Question 40

Memory conformity:

Answer 40

When

what one witness reports

influences what another witness

reports

Question 41

Misinformation effect:

Answer 41

Phenomenon where a witness who

is presented with inaccurate

information after an event will

incorporate that misinformation

into a subsequent recall task. Also

known as the post-event

information effect

Post-event information

effect: Phenomenon where a

witness who is presented with

inaccurate information after an

event will incorporate that

misinformation into a subsequent

recall task. Also known

Question 42

Misinformation acceptancehypothesis:

Answer 42

Explanation for the

misinformation effect where the

incorrect information is provided

because the witness guesses what

the officer or experimenter wants

the response to be

Question 43

Source misattributionhypothesis:

Answer 43

Explanation for the

misinformation effect where the

witness has two memories, the

original and the misinformation;

however, the witness cannot

remember where each memory

originated or the source of each

Question 44

Memory impairmenthypothesis:

Answer 44

Explanation for the

misinformation effect where the

original memory is replaced with

the new, incorrect information

Question 45

Procedures That Help Police Interview

Eyewitnesses

Answer 45

Hypnosis

Question 46

hypnotically refreshed memory

Answer 46

A hypnotized witness may be able to produce a greaternumber of details than a nonhypnotized witness; this phenomenon is termed

Question 47

Cognitive interview:

Answer 47

Interview

procedure for use with

eyewitnesses based on principles of

memory storage and retrieval

(1) reinstating the context, (2) reporting everything, (3) reversing order, and (4) changing perspective.

Question 48

Enhanced cognitive interview:

Answer 48

Interview procedure that includes various principles of social dynamics in addition to the memory retrieval principles used in the original cognitive interview

1. Rapport building. An officer should spend time building rapport with the witness

and make him or her feel comfortable and supported.

2. Supportive interviewer behaviour. A witness’s free recall should not be interrupted;

pauses should be waited out by the officer, who should express attention to what the witness is saying.

3. Transfer of control. The witness, not the officer, should control the flow of the interview; the witness is the expert—that is, the witness, not the officer, was the

person who saw the crime.

4. Focused retrieval. Questions should be open-ended and not leading or suggestive; after free recall, the officer should use focused memory techniques to facilitate retrieval.

5. Witness-compatible questioning. An officer’s questions should match the witness’s

thinking; if the witness is talking about clothing, the officer should be asking about clothing.

Question 49

Recognition Memory includes

Answer 49

■ Live lineups or photo arrays

■■ Video surveillance records

■■ Voice identification

Question 50

A fair lineup is

Answer 50

one in which the suspect does not stand out from the other lineup members. For example, if skin colour was not mentioned, then a lineup could be constructed with one white face (the suspect) and five black faces. Thus, the lineup would be unfair or biased.

Question 51

Target-present lineup:

Answer 51

A lineup

that contains the perpetrator

Question 52

Target-absent lineup:

Answer 52

A lineup

that does not contain the

perpetrator but rather an innocent

suspect

Question 53

Relative judgment:

Answer 53

Witness

compares lineup members to one

another and the person who looks

most like the perpetrator is

identified

Question 54

Sequential lineup:

Answer 54

more likely to make an absolute judgment

each lineup member is compared with the witness’s memory of the perpetrator and the witness decides

whether it is the perpetrator.

Alternative lineup procedure where the lineup

members are presented serially to

the witness, and the witness must

make a decision as to whether the

lineup member is the perpetrator

before seeing another member.

Also, a witness cannot ask to see

previously seen photos and is

unaware of the number of photos

to be shown

Question 55

Absolute judgment:

Answer 55

Witness

compares each lineup member to

his or her memory of the

perpetrator to decide whether the

lineup member is the perpetrator

Question 56

Showup:

Answer 56

Identification procedure that shows one person to the witness: the suspect

The witness is asked whether the person is the perpetrator.

the witness is aware of whom the police suspect, and this knowledge may increase a witness’s likelihood of making an identification that may be false.

Question 57

Walk-by:

Answer 57

Identification procedure

that occurs in a naturalistic

environment. The police take the

witness to a public location where

the suspect is likely to be. Once the

suspect is in view, the witness is

asked whether he or she sees the

perpetrator

Question 58

Biased lineup:

Answer 58

A lineup that

“suggests” whom the police

suspect and thereby whom the

witness should identify

Question 59

Foil bias.

Answer 59

The suspect is the only lineup member who matches the description of

the perpetrator. For example, the suspect has a beard and moustache while the other lineup members are clean-shaven

Question 60

Clothing bias.

Answer 60

The suspect is the only lineup member wearing clothing similar to

that worn by the perpetrator. For example, the perpetrator was described as

wearing a blue baseball cap. The suspect is wearing a blue baseball cap while the foils are not

Question 61

Instruction bias.

Answer 61

The police fail to mention

to the witness that the perpetrator may not

be present; rather, the police imply that the

perpetrator is present and that the witness

should pick him or her out

Question 62

Cross-race effect:

Answer 62

Phenomenon

of witnesses remembering ownrace

faces with greater accuracy

than faces from other races. Also

known as the other-race effect and

the own-race bias

Question 63

Weapon Focus

Answer 63

is the term used to describe the phenomenon of a witness’s attention being focused on the perpetrator’s weapon rather than on the perpetrator (Steblay, 1992). The witness will remember less about the crime and perpetrator when a weapon is present than when no weapon is present

Question 64

Cue-utilization hypothesis:

Answer 64

Proposed by Easterbrook (1959) to

explain why a witness may focus

on the weapon rather than other

details. The hypothesis suggests

that when emotional arousal

increases, attentional capacity

decreases

Question 65

Voluntary false confession:

Answer 65

A

false confession that is provided

without any elicitation from the

police

Question 66

Coerced-compliant falseconfession:

Answer 66

A confession that

results from a desire to escape a

coercive interrogation environment

or gain a benefit promised by the

police

(1) escape further interrogation, (2) gain a promised benefit, or (3) avoid a threatened punishment

Question 67

Coerced-internalized false confession:

Answer 67

A confession that

results from suggestive interrogation

techniques, whereby the confessor

actually comes to believe he or she

committed the crime

(1) a history of substance abuse or some other interference with brain function,
(2) the inability of people to detect discrepancies between what they observed and

what has been erroneously suggested to them, and (3) factors associated with mental

state, such as severe anxiety, confusion, or feelings of guilt

Question 68

Compliance:

Answer 68

A tendency to go

along with demands made by

people perceived to be in authority,

even though the person may not

agree with them

Question 69

Internalization:

Answer 69

The acceptance

of guilt for an act, even if the

person did not actually commit the

act

Question 70

Confabulation:

Answer 70

The reporting of

events that never actually occurred

the degree to which participants made

up details to fit with their confession

Question 71

The Juries Act

Answer 71

is provincial and territorial legislation that outlines the eligibility criteria

for jury service and how prospective jurors must be selected

Question 72

Jury summons:

Answer 72

A court order

that states a time and place to go

for jury duty

Question 73

Representativeness:

Answer 73

A jury

composition that represents the

community where the crime

occurred

Question 74

Impartiality:

Answer 74

A characteristic of

jurors who are unbiased

Question 75

Representativeness:

Answer 75

A jury

composition that represents the

community where the crime

occurred

Question 76

Impartiality

Answer 76

1. pre-existing biases
2. ignore inadmissible information such as media attention
3. no connection to the defendant

Question 77

3 ways to overcome a biased jury:

Answer 77

1) Change the venue
2) Adjourn to a later date so that memories of the media reports fade. The problem is that witnesses memories fade too
3) challenge for cause = reject biased jurors with a preset questions approved by the judge

Question 78

main function of a Jury

Answer 78

1. To use the wisdom of 12 (rather than the wisdom of 1) to reach a verdict
2. To act as the conscience of the community
3. To protect against out-of-date laws
4. To increase knowledge about the justice system

Question 79

Jury nullification:

Answer 79

Occurs when

a jury ignores the law and the

evidence, rendering a verdict based

on some other criteria

Question 80

Chaos theory:

Answer 80

The theory that

when jurors are guided by their

emotions and personal biases

rather than by the law, chaos in

judgments results

Question 81

Deliberation:

Answer 81

When jury

members discuss the evidence

privately among themselves to

reach a verdict that is then

provided to the court

Question 82

Polarization:

Answer 82

When individuals

tend to become more extreme in

their initial position following a

group discussion

Question 83

Leniency bias:

Answer 83

When jurors move

toward greater leniency during

deliberations

Question 84

Hung jury:

Answer 84

A jury that cannot

reach a unanimous verdict

Crown must decide whether it will retry the case.

Question 85

Predicting Verdicts

Answer 85

(1) demographic variables, (2) personality traits, (3) attitudes, (4) defendant

characteristics, (5) victim characteristics, and (6) expert testimony.

Question 86

Black sheep effect:

Answer 86

When

evidence is strong, similarity

between defendant and jury leads

to punitiveness

Question 87

The Youth Criminal Justice Act’s Key Changes to the Canadian

Criminal Justice System

Answer 87

1. Less serious and less violent offences should be kept out of the formal court process.
2. The number of extrajudical measures is increased.
3. There is a greater focus on prevention and reintegration into the community.
4. Transfers to adult court are removed; instead, youth court judges can impose adult sentences.
5. The interests and needs of victims are recognized.

Question 88

How do We Study Juror and Jury Behaviour?

Answer 88

1- Post-trial Interviews - only legal in the US

2 - Archives - no cause and effect

3 - Simulation - no consequences so hard to generalize and mostly university students

4- Field Studies - hard to get access/authorization from courts

Question 89

4 possible outcomes to the exaplnation model of a jury’s decision

Answer 89

(1) a believer (i.e., favouring the prosecution),
(2) a doubter(i.e., favouring the defense),
(3) a muller (i.e., trying to choose between two or more

plausible stories), or

(4) a puzzler (i.e., unable to formulate a story)

Question 90

The two personality traits that have been commonly measured in connection to jurors are

Answer 90

authoritarianism and dogmatism

they are more rigid so they side with the prosecution