Test 2 Flashcards
Components of blood
Plasma-55%
Cells-45% (White blood cells-
Components of plasma
Water (90%) Ions Proteins Gases Nutrients Wastes Hormones
Components of cells
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
Where do blood cells develop
Stem cells in bone marrow
Hematopoiesis
Blood cell formation
Where does hematophiesis occur?
Red bone marrow (skull, pelvis, ribs, sternum, humerus, femur)
Describe erythrocytes
Red blood cells Transport O2 in blood Bioconcave discs Anucleate Hemoglobin Life span of 100-120 days
Iron-containing protein, bonds to O2
Hemoglobin
Decrease in oxygen-carrying ability of blood
Low red blood count or deficient hemoglobin content
Anemia
Abnormal hemoglobin
Genetic disorder
Carriers of 1 allele are resistant to malaria in Africa
Sickle-cell disease
Explain leukocytes
White blood cells
Defend body against infection and tumors
Locate areas of tissue damage by responding to chemicals
What are the types of white blood cells
Neutrophils Eosinophil Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes
Granulocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Small cytoplasmic granules stain light purple and give the cytoplasm a coarse appearance
Polymorphonuclear
Highly mobile and phagocytic
Migrate out of blood vessels
Neutrophils
Large, numerous cytoplasmic granules that stain orange
Nuclei have two lobes
Involved in allergic reactions
Weak phagocytes
Eosinophils
Nuclei have multiple lobes
Polymorphonuclear
Large but sparse cytoplasmic granules
Least numerous of white blood cells
Motile
Contain histamine and heparin
Basophils
Smallest WBCs
Largest spherical nuclei
Lymphocytes
8 functions of blood
- deliver O2 and nutrients to all body cells
- transport waste products from cells for elimination
- transport hormones
- maintain body temp
- maintain pH
- maintain fluid volume
- prevent blood loss
- prevent infection
Lymphocytes that directly attack infected or cancerous cells
T lymphocytes
Lymphocytes which produce antibodies
B lymphocytes
Largest white blood cells
Dark, kidney bean shaped nuclei
Motile and highly phagocytic (Emily bacteria and viral infected cells)
Monocytes
Bone marrow become cancerous leading to huge numbers of white blood cells and is treated with chemotherapy, radiation, stem cell transplants
Leukemia
Cell fragments which are needed for clotting blood
Platelets
Stoppage of bleeding
Hemostasis
Steps of Hemostasis
Vascular spasm
Platelet plug forms
Coagulation
Step of Hemostasis when the damaged blood vessel constricts
Vascular spasm
The step of Hemostasis when platelets stick and bind to damaged site and release chemicals to attract more platelets
Platelet plug forms
Step of hemostasis when the blood clotting and the fibrin threads forms mesh that traps red blood cells
Coagulation
How long does it take for Hemostasis to occur
Blood clot forms in 3-6 minutes
Clot in unbroken blood vessel
Thrombus
Coronary thrombosis =
Heart attack
Thrombus breaks away from vessel wall and floats freely
Embolus
Cerebral embolus =
Stroke
Hereditary bleeding disorder, lack clotting factors
Hemophilia
Foreign substance that immune system recognizes
Antigen
y-shaped proteins secreted by white blood cells that attach to antigens
Antibodies
Clumping caused by antibodies bonding to antigens on red blood cells
Agglutination
What are the red blood cell surface proteins
A antigen
B antigen
Rh antigen
What antigens does blood type A have on the surface of its red blood cells
A
What antigens does blood type b have on the surface of its red blood cells
B
What antigens does blood type AB have on the surface of its red blood cells
A and B
What antigen does blood type O have on the surface of its red blood cells?
None
In blood typing, clumps mean
An antigen is present
What are the two circuits which the heart pumps blood to?
Pulmonary and systemic
Where does the heart pump blood to in the pulmonary circuit?
To and from the lungs
Where does the heart pump blood to in the systemic circuit
To and from everywhere but the lungs
What are the three kinds of blood vessels
Arteries
Capillaries
Veins
Carry blood away from the heart and carry to the capillaries
Arteries
Microscopic vessels where exchange between cells and blood takes place
Capillaries
Received blood from capillaries and carry it back to the heart
Veins
Two sets of pumping gamblers in the heart
Left and right atrium
Left and right ventricle
Receives systemic blood
Right atrium
Pumps blood to the lungs (pulmonary)
Right ventricle
Receives blood from the lungs
Left atrium
Pumps blood to organ systems (systemic)
Left ventricle
Pericardial sac
Surrounds the heart
Parts of the heart wall
Myocardium
Endocardium
Middle layer of the heart wall
Thickest part
Thick muscle layer
Myocardium
Inner lining of the pumping chambers of the heat
Continuous with endothelium (inner layer of blood vessel)
Simple squamous epithelium
Endocardium
Describe cardiac muscle cells
Shorter than skeletal muscle fibers Have single nucleus Have striations Depend of aerobic metabolism Connected by intercalated discs
Blood flow of the heart
Superior/inferior venae cavae➡️right atrium➡️right ventricle➡️pulmonary semilunar valve➡️pulmonary veins➡️left atrium➡️left ventricle➡️aorta
Which ventricles myocardium is thicker?
Left
Why does the left ventricle have thicket myocardium?
Because it has a harder job–sending blood to the entire body
What to heart valves insure?
One way blood flow
Regurgitation
Backward blood flow
Key note on the anatomy of the heart
The heart has 4 chambers, the right atrium and ventricle with the pulmonary circuit and the left atrium and ventricle with the systemic circuit. The left ventricles greater workload makes it more massive than the right, but the two pump equal amounts of blood. AV valves prevent backflow from the ventricles into the atria, and semilunar valves prevent backflow from the outflow vessels into the ventricles
Coronary circulation meets the heavy demands of ___ for ____
Myocardium
Oxygen
Nutrients
Coronary arteries
Involved in blood supply to the heart
Left and right arteries-both branch from aorta base
Drainage of the heart is to
The right atrium
How do the capillaries drain?
Great and middle cardiac veins
Where does the drainage of the heart empty to?
Coronary sinus
A blood clot in an artery
Embolism
What causes a heart attack?
Buildup of plaque in the walls of an artery. This can lead to restriction or cessation (stopping) of blood flow in the artery. A portion of the myocardium may die
Myocardial infarction
Heart attack
Types of blood vessels
Artery
Vein
Capillaries
Blood vessel which carries blood away from the heart
Artery
A blood vessel that carries blood towards the heart
Vein
Microscopic blood vessels that carry blood from small arteries to small veins
Capillaries
Pathway of blood
Artery➡️arteriole➡️capillary➡️venuole➡️vein
Blood vessel structure starting with inner to outer
Tunica intima
Tunica media
Tunica adventitia
The endothelium of the blood vessel
Tunica intima
Smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue of the blood vessel
Tunica media
Fibrous type of vessel connective tissue
Tunica adventitia
Describe the three layers of arteries and their function
Intima-smooth lining
Media-allows constriction and dilation of vessels; thicker than in veins; muscle innervated by autonomic fibers
Adventitia-provides flexible support that resists collapse or injury;thicker than veins; thinner than media
Describe the three layers of veins and their functions
Intima-smooth lining w semi-lunar valves to ensure one way blood flow
Media-allows constriction and dilation of vessels; thinner than in arteries; muscle innervated by autonomic fibers
Adventitia- provides flexible support that resists collapse or injury; thinner than in arteries; thicker than media
Describe the three layers in capillaries and their function
Intima-makes up the entire wall of the capillary; thinness permits transport across vessel wall
Media-absent
Adventitia-absent
What are the functions of capillaries?
- Most import vessels functionally
- tiny
- 100,000 / 1 cubic cm of muscle tissue
- primary exchange vessels
- the small size and large number ensures slow blood flow
Describe the function of arteries
- distributors; carry blood vessels to the arterioles which then takes to capillaries
- arterioles are important in maintaining normal blood pressure and circulation
Resistance vessels
Arterioles
Valves which regulate blood flow into the capillaries
Precapillary sphincters
Describe the function of veins
Collectors and reservoir vessels (able to hold blood)
The great ability to stretch, meaning something can hold large amounts of blood with almost no change in blood pressure
Capacitance
Which structure has capacitance
Veins
Maintain one way blood flow in veins
Valves
Describe the reservoir function of veins
Pooled blood is moved toward the heart as valves are forced open by pressure from volume of blood from below
Two circulatory routes
Systemic
Pulmonary
Blood is pumped from the left side of the heart
Systemic circulation
Blood is pumped to all tissues of the body
Systemic
Blood is pumped from the right side of the heart
Pulmonary
Blood is pumped to the gas exchange tissues of the lungs
Pulmonary
Branch into vessels of increasing size
Veins
Vessels can vary
In size and location from person to person
Deep veins
Veins found deep in the body
Superficial veins
Veins found near the surface
Modified cardiac muscle that specializes in contraction
Conduction system of the heart
Four main structures that compose the conduction system of the heart
Sinoatrial (SA) node
Atrioventricular (AV) node
AV bundle
Purkinje system
Describe the SA node
- Initiates the mechanical contraction of the heart
- located in the right atrium just below the junction of the superior vena cava
- possesses an intrinsic rhythm
Pacemaker of the heart
SA node
Intrinsic rhythm
Impulses are initiated at regular impulses without any stimulation by nerve impulses from the brain and cord
Describe the AV node
- impulses travel here from SA node
- contract
- action potential enters through three internodal bundles of conducting fibers
What happens as an impulse passes through the AV Node?
The impulse slowly passes through the AV node then speeds up as the impulse is relayed through the AV bundle (bundle of His) into the ventricles
What conducts impulses through the ventricles?
the right and left AV bundle branches and the Purkinje fibers. This causes them to contract simultaneously
Describe an artificial Pacemaker?
- Devices that electrically stimulate the heart
- Electrodes sewn directly into the epicardium or directly inserted into the heart chamber
- Inferior to the heart’s natural pacemaker
Impulse conduction generates
tiny electrical currents in the heart that spread through surrounding tissues to the surface of the body
What is a ECG/EKG?
An electrocardiogram
graphic record of the hearts electrical activity—the impules that preced the actual contraction
Where are electrodes attached for an ECG/EKG
to a voltmeter and to the limbs and chest of the subject
Letter A of a EKG
At rest (baseline) Heart wall is completely relaxed—no change in electrical activity
Letter B of an EKG
Action potential reaches the first electrode (relatively negative)
P wave represents the depolarization of the atria
Letter C of an EKG
Action potential reaches the second electrode (pen returns to baseline)
Atrial walls are completely depolarized—no change recorded
Letter D of an EKG
End of action potential passes the first electrode (relatively positive)
QRS Complex occurs as atrial walls repolarize and ventricular walls depolarize (massive depolarization of ventricles overshadows atrial repolarization)
Letter E of an EKG
Action potential passes second electrode (returns to baseline)
Atrial walls are completely repolarized and ventricular walls are completely depolarized
Describe EKG waves
- Represent the dynamic events that happen during the contraction of the heart
- Letters are arbitrary and do not stand for any words
Describe F Wave of EKG
T wave appears as the ventricular walls replarize
Describe G Wave of EKG
Once the ventricles are completely repolarized it is back to the baseline ECG
Describe a Transesophageal Echocardiogram
Allows for visuals of heart from behind the heart (video)
Device is inserted into the esophagus
Describe Bradycardia
- Slow heart rhythm—below 60 beats per minute
- Slight bradycardia is normal during sleep and in conditioned athletes when awake
- Can be caused by damage to the SA node
Describe Tachycardia
- Very rapid heart rhythm—more than 100 beats per minute
- Normal during and after exercise and during the stress response
- Can result from improper autonomic control of the heart, blood loss, shock and a host of other factors
Describe Ventricular Fibrillation
- Complete disruption of the normal heart rhythm
- Death may occur within minutes if the heart beat is not corrected by defibrillation or other means
First sound heard when listening to heartbeat
- “Lub”
- occurs when atrioventricular valves close
Second sound heard when listening to heartbeat
- “dup”
- occurs when semilunar valves close
What are the two parts of the two parts which the lymphatic system consists of?
- Lymphatic vessels
- Lymphoid tissues and organs
What are the lymphatic system functions?
- Transport fluids back to the blood
- Play essential roles in body defense and resistance to disease
excess tissue fluid carried by lymphatic vessels
lymph
Properties of lymphatic vessels
- One way system toward the heart
- No pump
- Lymph moves toward the heart
What happens as lymph moves towards the heart?
- Milking action of skeletal muscle
- Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in vessel walls
Describe Lymph campillaries
- Walls overlap to form flap-like minivalves
- Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
- Capillaries are anchored to connective tissue by filaments
- Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves
How do lymphatic collecting vessels work?
- Collects lymph from lymph capillaries
- Carries lymph to and away from lymph nodes
- Returns fluid to circulatory veins near the heart
What ducts is lymph returned to?
Right lymphatic duct
Thoracic duct
What materials does lymph return to blood?
water
blood cells
proteins
What harmful materials enter lymph vessels?
Bacteria
Viruses
Cancer cells
Cell debris
What are the function of lymph nodes?
- Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
- Defense cells within lymph nodes
What are lymph nodes two lines of defense?
macrophages
lymphocytes
engulf and destroy foreign substances
macrophages
provide immune response to antigens
lymphocytes
Describe the structure of lymph nodes
Most of kidney-shaped, less than 1 inch long
cortex
medulla
outer part of a lymph node that contains follicles
cortex
collections of lymphocytes
follicles
inner part of a lymph node which contains phagocytic macrophages
medulla
What is the flow of lymph through nodes?
- Lymph enters the convex side through afferent lymphatic vessels
- Lymph flows through a number of sinuses inside the node
- Lymph exits through efferent lymphatic vessels
- Fewer efferent than afferent vessels causes flow to be slowed
what organs contribute to lymphatic function
spleen
thymus
tonsils
peyer’s patches
Describe the spleen
- Located on the left side of the abdomen
- Filters blood
- Destroys worn out blood cells
- Forms blood cells in the fetus
- Acts as a blood reservoir
Describe the thymus
- Located low in the throat, overlying the heart
- Functions at peak levels only during childhood
- Produces hormones (like thymosin) to program lymphocytes
Describe tonsils
- Small masses of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx
- Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign materials
- Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with bacteria
Describe Peyer’s Patches
- Found in the wall of the small intestine
- Resemble tonsils in structure
- Capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine
What is a MALT
Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue
Acts as a sentinal to protect respiratory and digestive tracts
What are MALT organs
- Peyer’s patches
- Tonsils
- Other small accumulations of lymphoid tissue
The body is constantly in contact with
bacteria, fungi, and viruses
What are the bodies 2 defense systems for foreign materials
nonspecific defense system
specific defense system
Nonspecific Defense System
- Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders
- Responds immediately to protect body from foreign materials
Specific Defense System
- Specific defense is required for each type of invader
- Also known as the immune system
Lines of Defense of the nonspecific defense mechanism
first and second
lines of defense of the specific defense mechanism
third line of defense
First line of defense
- skin
- mucous membranes
- secretions of skin and mucous membranes
second line of defense
- phagocytic cells
- antimicrobial proteins
- the inflammatory response
third line of defense
- lymphocytes
- antibodies
- macrophages
Body surface coverings, specialized human cells, and chemicals produces by the body
nonspecific body defenses
Examples of nonspecific mechanisms
intact skin and mucous membranes
Describe the skin as a first line of defense
physical barrier to foreign materials
-the pH of skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial growth
EX)) sebum is toxic to bacteria and vaginal secretions are very acidic
Describe the stomach as a first line of defense
Secretes hydrochloric acid
Has protein-digesting enzymes
Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain ____ as a line of defense
lysozyme
Mucus traps
microorganisms in digestive and respiratory pathways
Describe Phagocytes
- Engulfs foreign material into a vacuole
- Enzymes from lysosomes digest the material
Describe a natural Killer cell
- Can lyse and kill cancer cells
- Can destroy virus- infected cells
Describe the inflammatory response as a second line of defense
- Triggered when body tissues are injured
- Produces four cardinal signs
- Results in a chain of events leading to protection and healing
What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation
- Redness
- Heat
- Swelling
- Pain
What are the functions of the inflammatory response
- Prevents spread of damaging agents
- Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
- Sets the stage for repair
Describe complement
- A group of at least 20 plasma proteins
- Activated when they encounter and attach to cells (complement fixation)
- Damage foreign cell surfaces
- Has vasodilators, chemotaxis, and opsonization
What are the antimicrobial chemicals
complement
interferon
Describe interferon
- Secreted proteins of virus-infected cells
- Bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses binding
Describe a fever
- Abnormally high body temperature
- Hypothalmus heat regulation can be reset by pyrogens (secreted by white blood cells)
- High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc from liver and spleen needed by bacteria
- Fever also increases the speed of tissue repair
Describe specific defense as a third line of defense
- antigen specific
- systemic
- has memory
if something is antigen specific it
recognizes and acts against particular foreign substances
if a specific defense is systemic it
is not restricted to the initial infection site
specific defenses have memory, meaning
it recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
types of immunity
humoral
cellular
humoral immunity
- Antibody-mediated immunity
- Cells produce chemicals for defense
cellular immunity
- Cell-mediated immunity
- Cells target virus infected cells
an antigen is
Any substance capable of exciting the immune system and provoking an immune response
6 examples of common antigens
- Foreign proteins
- Nucleic acids
- Large carbohydrates
- Some lipids
- Pollen grains
- Microorganisms
Describe the concept of self-antigens
We have many surface proteins but our immune cells do not attack them because we recognize them as our own proteins. If our cells end up in another person’s body or vice versa then there is a immune response because they are foreign. This restricts donors for transplants
Describe allergies
- Many small molecules (called haptens or incomplete antigens) are not antigenic, but link up with our own proteins
- The immune system may recognize and respond to a protein-hapten combination
- The immune response is harmful rather than protective because it attacks our own cells
What are the cells of the immune system
lymphocytes
macrophages
Describe lymphocytes
- Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow
- B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the bone marrow
- T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the thymus
Describe macrophages
- Arise from monocytes
- Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
Explain a humoral immune response
- B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to a specific antigen
- The binding event activates the lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection
- A large number of clones are produced (primary humoral response)
- Most B cells become plasma cells
- -Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
- -Activity lasts for four or five days
- Some B cells become long-lived memory cells (secondary humoral response)
Describe a secondary response
- Memory cells are long-lived
- A second exposure causes a rapid response
- The secondary response is stronger and longer lasting
- Memory cells are long-lived
- A second exposure causes a rapid response
- The secondary response is stronger and longer lasting
Describe Active Immunity
- Your B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies
- Active immunity can be naturally or artificially acquired
Describe passive immunity
- Antibodies are obtained from someone else
- Immunological memory does not occur
- Protection provided by “borrowed antibodies”
What ways can antibodies be obtained from someone else
- Conferred naturally from a mother to her fetus
- Conferred artificially from immune serum or gamma globulin
Describe monoclonal antibodies
- Antibodies prepared for clinical testing or diagnostic services
- Produced from descendents of a single cell line
Examples of uses for monoclonal antibodies
- Diagnosis of pregnancy
- Treatment after exposure to hepatitis and rabies
Describe antibodies
- Soluble proteins secreted by B cells (plasma cells)
- Carried in blood plasma
- Capable of binding specifically to an antigen
Describe antibody structures
- Four amino acid chains linked by disulfide bonds
- Two identical amino acid chains are linked to form a heavy chain
- The other two identical chains are light chains
- Specific antigen-binding sites are present
Antibody classes
lgM lgA lgD lgG lgE
can fix complement
lgM
found mainly in mucos
lgA
important in activation of B cell
lgD
can cross the placental barrier
lgG
involved in allergies
lgE
How do antibodies inactivate antigens?
- Complement fixation
- Neutralization
- Agglutination
- Precipitation
Describe cellular immune response
- Antigens must be presented by macrophages to an immunocompetent T cell (antigen presentation)
- T cells must recognize nonself and self (double recognition)
- After antigen binding, clones form as with B cells, but different classes of cells are produced
What are the types of T cell clones
cytotoxic T cells
helper T cells
Suppressor T cells
Cytotoxic T cells
- Specialize in killing infected cells
- Insert a toxic chemical (perforin)
Helper T cells
- Recruit other cells to fight the invaders
- Interact directly with B cells
Suppressor T cells
- Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and B cells
- Stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled activity
A few members of each T cell clone are
memory cells
tissue transplanted from one site to another on the same person
autografts
tissue grafts from and identical person (twin)
isografts
tissue taken from an unrelated person
allografts
tissue taken from a different animal species
xenografts
which graft is ideal for donation
autografts and isografts
how often are xenografts successful
never
what increases the success of an allograft
closer tissue match
Describe allergy hypersensitivity
Abnormal, vigorous immune responses
What are the different types of allergies
- immediate hypersensitivity
- Delayed hypersensitivity
Describe immediate hypersensitivity
- Triggered by release of histamine from IgE binding to mast cells
- Reactions begin within seconds of contact with allergen
- Anaphylactic shock
Dangerous systemic response of immediate allergies
anaphylactic shock
Describe delayed hypersensitivity
- Triggered by the release of lymphokines from activated helper T cells
- Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after contact with antigen
Describe immunodeficiencies
-Production or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal
-May be congenital or acquired
Includes AIDS – Acquired -Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Describe autoimmune diseases
- The immune system does not distinguish between self and nonself
- The body produces antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes that attack its own tissues
What are examples of autoimmune diseases
MS Myasthenia gravis Juvenile diabetes Rheumatoid arthritis Systemic lupus erythematosus glomerulonephritis
white matter of brain and spinal cord are destroyed
MS
impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscles
myasthenia gravis
destroys pancreatic beta cells that produce insulin
juvenile diabetes
destroys joints
rheumatoid arthritis
affects kidney, hear, lung and skin
SLE
impairment of renal function
glomerulonephritis
Describe self tolerance breakdown
- Inefficient lymphocyte programming
- Appearance of self-proteins in the circulation that have not been exposed to the immune system
- -Eggs
- -Sperm
- -Eye lens
- Cross-reaction of antibodies produced against foreign antigens with self-antigens
- -Rheumatic fever
Describe the lymphatic system and body defenses from a developmental standpoint
- Except for thymus and spleen, the lymphoid organs are poorly developed before birth
- A newborn has no functioning lymphocytes at birth; only passive immunity from the mother
- If lymphatics are removed or lost, severe edema results, but vessels grow back in time
