Test #2 Flashcards
Processes of transport
1) passive, 2) active
Active process
Active Transport
a) primary - uses ATP directly
b) secondary - energy provided by movement of second substance down the gradient
b1) symporter - same direction with secondary substance
b2) antiporter - opposite direction as secondary substance
Vesicular transport
a) exocytosis (exiting the cell)
b) endocytosis (entering the cell)
b1) phagocytosis
b2) pinocytosis
b3) Receptor-mediated endocytosis (most common)
Passive process
1) diffusion - movement of particles from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
1a) simple diffusion - non-polar, small solutes, no assistance from plasma membranes
1b) facilitated diffusion - polar, charged solutes, uses carrier proteins or channel proteins, requires assistance from membrane proteins but doesn’t require energy from the cell
1b.1) leak - always open
1b.2) gated - needs stimulation to open
2) osmosis - movement of water from hypotonic concentration to hypertonic concentration
3) dialysis - separation of small molecules from larger ones across a semi-permeable membrane
4) filtration - uses outside force (gravity, pump, blood pressure)
Define a gene
A gene is a piece of DNA that carries the instructions for making one polypeptide (protein)
Components of nucleotide
Nitrogenous base, hexose (ribose/deoxyribose) sugar, phosphate group
RNA/DNA base pairings
RNA (A-U, G-C)
DNA (A-T, G-C)
Transcription
mRNA copying DNA (formation of mRNA), occurs in nucleus (codon - think “coding”)
Translation (& stops)
Genetic code carried by mRNA is decoded in cytoplasm to produce amino acids by binding with the anti-codon of tRNA; stops UAA, UAG, UGA [elongation ends]
Triplet
DNA; three base sequence that calls for an amino acid
Codon
mRNA; three base sequence that calls for an amino acid
Anticodon
tRNA; three base sequence that calls for an amino acid
Four types of tissues
Epithelial (separates, lines organs, forms glands), CT (proper, structural, blood), muscle (skeletal, cardiac, smooth), nervous
Epithelial tissue (layers, shapes, functions, and examples)
Layers (simple vs stratified)
Shapes (squamous - diffuses, cuboidal - absorption/secretion, columnar - absorption/secretion, pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar - respiratory)
Top - apical surface, bottom - basal surface
No blood vessels, highly regenerative
Examples
Simple squamous: diffusion (e.g. air sacs in lungs)
Cuboidal: secretion and absorption (e.g. kidney tubules aka urine tubes)
Columnar simple: secretion and absorption (e.g. gastro-intestinal tract)
Pseudo-stratified columnar ciliated: movement of mucus (e.g. upper-respiratory tract)
Stratified squamous: protection (e.g. skin)
Transitional: stretches to store urine (e.g. lines the urinary bladder)
Connective tissue (general info; components)
Most abundant, diverse, widely distributed
Components 1. Cells, matrix (2. protein fibers & 3. ground substances)
Most cells in connective tissue are not in direct contact w/each other (compare w/epithelium which are mostly tight junctions); polarity of CT - one side is free, the other its attached??
Endocrine vs exocrine glands
Endocrine (ductless, loses duct) secretes hormones into interstitial fluid, blood and lymph
Exocrine (retains duct) connected w/epithelial surface
Muscle tissue (shape, regenerative capability)
Skeletal - highly cellular and well vascularized; has weakest regenerative ability; cylindrical, multinucleate, striated cells
Cardiac has virtually no functional regenerative ability; cells are branching chains
Smooth has greatest ability to regenerate; moderate; cells are spindle shaped, uninuclear, non-striated
Nervous tissue
Neurons transmit from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscles and glands)
Dendrites surround the cell membrane, axon is cylinder protruding from cell, axon terminal is the end of the cylinder
Integumentary system (functions)
Functions as 1) protection (chemical, physical, biological), 2) temp regulation, 3) cutaneous sensations, 4) metabolic, 5) blood reservoir, 6) excretion
Stages of wound healing
Tissue repair begins with inflammation
Sweat glands
Two types: merocrine (eccrine) - thermoregulation; apocrine - pheromone
Methods of secretion of exocrine glands (ESSAY QUESTION)
Exocrine glands retains their ducts; connected w/epithelial surface: exocytosis (e.g. sweat [i.e. sudoriferous], oil [i.e. sebaceous], mammary, salivary glands)
Methods of secretion
Merocrine (eecrine) glands; e.g., salivary, eccrine sweat glands (regulate temp, regulated by the sympathetic n.s.) (eccrine = using exocytosis)
Apocrine glands (also merocrine gland) - pinching off apical portion of secretory cell (mammary) (apocrine sweat glands in axillary and pubic area - pheromone)
Holocrine glands - the secretory cell ruptures, releasing secretions and dead cell fragments (sebaceous [oil] widely distributed EXCEPT thick skin of palms and soles; secretes sebum (fat & cell debris)
Macrophage
Macrophages phagocytize dead and dying cells and other debris.
Fibrosis
Replaces destroyed tissue with scar tissue, which is dense connective tissue.
Tonicity
Tonicity - the ability of a solution to change the volume or pressure of the cell (causing the cell to swell or shrink) by osmosis
Isotonic - .9% NaCl/5% glucose is same as cytosol (body fluid); anything above this is hyper, below this is hypo
Hypotonic - solution w/lower concentration of solutes than cytosol; may cause lysis (rupture); water moves outside to inside; moving down concentration gradient
Hypertonic - solution w/higher concentration of solutes than cytosol; may cause crenation; water moves inside to outside; moving up concentration gradient
Ischemia
Lack of blood
Hypoxia
Lack of oxygen
Which organs belong to two organ systems?
Pancreas (digestive & endocrine), spleen (lymph & circulatory), thymus (endo & lymph), diaphragm (respiratory & muscle)
Describe significant factors that account for different concentrations of glucose and sodium chloride being isotonic to each other and to body cells
Cells (general info, functions, types; ESSAY QUESTION)
Cells - structural & functional units of the body (apoptosis - programmed cell death)
General cell functions - maintain integrity & shape, obtain nutrients, dispose of wastes
Types differ in size, shape, subcellular components, and function
Cell junctions
1) Tight junction (e.g., skin) - Leak-proof (predominantly epithelial)
2) Desmosomes - Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart
3) Gap junctions - Connexons between cells allow communication (pass nutrients and ions to each other directly)
Peripheral proteins and their functions
Support the membrane from its cytoplasmic side, enzymes, motor proteins involved in mechanical functions (changing cell shape during cell division and muscle cell contraction), link cells together
Cells (organelle and their functions - membrane & nucleus; ESSAY QUESTION)
Membrane - selectively permeable membrane (lets stuff in/out; polar, hydrophilic head, non-polar hydrophobic tail prevents water-soluble substances from entering)
-Microvilli - increase surface area of membrane
-Cilia - move other particles across the membrane of the cell
-Flagellum (sperm only) - move cell itself
Nucleus
-Nucleus - houses DNA as chromatin; largest structure of the cell, control center
-Chromosomes or chromatin - loose coiled DNA in nucleus for protein synthesis
-Nucleolus - synthesis and processing of RNA
-Nuclear envelope - twice as thick and protective as cell membrane, contains pores that allow mRNA to leave nucleus
Stages of cell cycle
“I passed my anatomy test”
Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase/cytokineis
Define a gene
A gene is a piece of DNA that carries the instructions for making one polypeptide (protein)
Intracellular vs insterstital
Intracellular (cytosol and nucleoplasm), interstitial (intercellular, extracellular; fluid on the exterior of the cell)
Gland duct shapes
Simple/branch/compound & tubular vs aveolary
Cylinder is duct, valley at the bottom is acinus
Mammary is compound alveolar, salivary is compound tubulalveolar
The sites of protein synthesis
During transcription in the nucleus, and during translation in the free ribosome of the cytoplasm, or the ribosome embedded in the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Epithelial tissue uses
1) Separation (skin)
2) Lines organ systems (mucous/serous)
3) Forms glands
Connective tissue (types)
CT types
CT proper
1) CT loose
1a) areolar
1b) adipose
1c) reticular
2) CT dense
2a) dense regular
2b) dense irregular
3) CT elastic
CT supporting
1) bone
2) cartilage
CT fluid
Connective tissue (proper)
CT proper
CT proper - loose CT
Areolar (collagen fibers give connective tissue great tensile strength)
Adipose - nucleus pushed to edge (fat)
Reticular - spleen
CT proper - dense CT
Dense regular CT (e.g. tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses) moderate regenerative ability (tendon connects muscle to bone [aponeurosis - flattened tendon], ligament connects bone to bone
Dense irregular CT
Elastic CT (e.g. ear)
Connective tissue (supporting & the most common?)
Supporting CT
Bone (provides framework for the body) (thick/spongy areas, central canal [nerves, arteries, veins], osteocyte inside lacunae, lacunae surrounded by canaliculi)
Cartilage (most common is hyaline = glassy, note most fibers are not visible; keeps trachea and bronchi open) (chondrocyte inside lacuna) (fibrocartilage (e.g. between vertebrae, pelvis))
Connective tissue (fluid)
Fluid CT
Blood (cells in fluid matrix)
Lymph
Integumentary (skin color)
Skin color
Melonin - regardless of race everyone has the same # of melanocytes
Carotene - vitamin A for night vision
Hemoglobin - pinkish hue of fair skin is lower levels of melanin so hemoglobin shows through
Integumentary (hair)
Hair structure - hair bulb, root (from the surface to the bulbous base), shaft (above the surface of the skin); kinky is ribbon-like
Integumentary (nails)
Nails - bed appears pink because it sits on tiny blood vessels; Koilonychia (spoon nail) may signal iron deficiency
Integumentary (skin cancer)
Skin cancer (greatest risk factor is UV exposure, fair skinned at highest risk)
Basal cell carcinoma - most common, least dangerous
Squamous cell carcinoma - raised, reddened, scaly
Malignant melanoma - rare but most deadly; arises from melanocytes
ABC of diagnoses (asymmetry, border, color, diameter)
Integumentary (burns)
Burns - immediate threat is dehydration
1) Epidermis
2) Epidermis and upper dermis, blisters appear
3) No pain, white, cherry red or blackened skin
Integumentary (epidermis cells)
Cells of epidermis: 4 types of cells
Keratinocytes - produces fibrous keratin, tightly connected by desmosomes (works w/melanocytes for protection); keratinized is like outside skin vs in mouth
Melanocytes - produces melanin which is packages as melanosomes for transport (works w/keratinocytes for protection)
Dendritic (Langerhorn) cells - microphages and phagocytes - activators of immune system
Tactile (Merkel’s) cells - sensory/touch (& free nerves for pain & temp)
Integumentary (hypodermis)
Hypodermis (superficial fascia/subcutaneous) - anchor, adipose CT (adipocytes: nucleus in cells pushed to edge) - fat for shock absorption
Integumentary (dermis)
Dermis - connective, fibrous CT, highly vascular
Dermis cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, white blood cells
1) Papillary layer: “nipple”, dermal papillae produces epidermal ridges (fingerprints; not considered a “tight” dermal attachment), capillary layers, lymphatic vessels
2) Reticular layer: CT dense irregular, arrector pili muscle (goose-bumps), free & lamellar corpuscle nerves, hair follicles, hair follicle receptor for hair assist touch sensation, makes up 80% of dermal thickness, cleavage lines caused by collagen fibers running parallel to skin surfaces
Integumentary (epidermis type of tissue, layers)
Epidermis - epithelial, avascular, four (thin skin) or five (thick skin) layers
*Clever Lucy Gets Special Bonus (superficial to deep)
1) Stratum basal - deepest, single row of stems cells that actively divide (mitotic); two daughter cells, one journeys to the top and dies in the process while the second remains as a stem cell
Stratum spinosum (prickly) - several layers
Stratum granulosum (granular) - 4-6 cells thick, but becoming flattened, beginning to die (levels above this are dead)
Stratum lucidum (clear) (THICK ONLY)- 2-3 rows, flat, dead, keratinocytes (no sebaceous glands in thick skin)
Stratum corneum (horny)
Cells (four functions of the plasma membrane; ESSAY QUESTION)
1) Physical barrier - protect and support
2) Selective permeability (lipid soluble solutes (e.g., cholesterol) can move freely through phospholipid bilayer - in this case the membrane is considered freely permeable to them, as they do not need the help of carrier or channel proteins)
3) Electrochemical gradient - establish and maintain charge difference
4) Communication - receptors that recognize and respond to molecular signals
Cells (membrane proteins; ESSAY QUESTION)
1) Transport (channels, carriers, pumps)
2) Receptor - binds ligand molecules (ligand examples: neurotransmitters and hormones)
3) Glycocalyx - the membrane coating made up of a combination of glycoprotein & glycolipid (carbs and lipids attached to membrane proteins) involved in cell recognition (e.g., immunce system cells distinguishing healthy cells from foreign cells
4) Enzyme
5) Anchoring site - secures cytoskeleton to membrane
6) Cell-adhesion protein - cell to cell attachments
Stages of the cell cycle (interphase)
1) Interphase - G1 growth, S DNA replication (i.e., duplication of chromatin; 23->46 sister chromatin), G2 growth and final preparation for division (chromatin found in interphase & daughter cell/with nuclear membrane)
Stages of the cell cycle (mitotic - prophase)
Mitotic phase - cell division
-1) Prophase (46)(chromatid found in prophase & metaphase)
–Early - still contains nuclear envelope, chromatin coils and creates chromosomes (each duplicated chromosome joins into a sister chromatid connected by a centromere); in cytoplasm centrioles are pulling apart and mitotic spindle is forming
–Late - nuclear envelope disintegrated allowing the spindle to interact with the chromatid; all cytoplasm now, centrioles have pulled apart to opposite sides, chromatid not yet lined up
Stages of the cell cycle (mitotic - metaphase)
-2) Metaphase (46)(chromatid found in prophase & metaphase); sister chromatid lined up across the center by centrioles pulled to opposite sides
Stages of the cell cycle (mitotic - anaphase)
-3) Anaphase (46->92); mitotic spindle separates chromatid (centromeres split) into daughter chromosomes and chromosomes migrate to opposite ends; no cleavage
Stages of the cell cycle (mitotic - telophase)
4) Telophase/cytokinesis (92) (chromatin found in interphase & daughter cell/with nuclear membrane); cleavage, nuclear envelopes forming, chromosomes begin to uncoil back into chromatin; karyokinesis - while dividing; cytokinesis - has divided
How do all three RNA participate in protein synthesis?
1) Messenger; produced in the nucleus; carries sequence of AA instructions (codon)
2) Transfer - synthetase enzyme; transfers mRNA codon’s AA’s to RNA bearing the anticodon
3) Ribosomal
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - endoplasmic reticulum; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Endoplasmic reticulum
—Rough - internally sugar groups are attached to proteins for transport to Golgi apparatus and; external face synthesizes phospholipids
—Smooth - synthesizes lipid and steroid molecules, metabolizes lipids
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - mitochondria; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Mitochondria - “power house” production of ATP; (also the only place DNA is found outside of nucleus)
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - Golgi apparatus; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Golgi apparatus - packages, concentrates, & modifies proteins (for export or membrane fusion) & lipids (enzymes) & produces lysosome packages
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - peroxisomes; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Peroxisomes - oxidase and catalase enzymes detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and formaldehyde
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - lysosome; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Lysosome - digestive enzymes
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - vesicles; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Vesicles
—Pinocytic vesicle - how the cell pulls H20 soluble substances into the cell
—Vacuole (vesicle) - temporary storage organelle for nutrients, toxins, etc.
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - ribosome; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Ribosome - protein synthesis (free ribosome for the cell, ribosome in rough ER is for transport somewhere else)
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - centrosome/matrix/centrioles; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Centrosome - contains a pair of centrioles surrounded by centrosome matrix
-Centrosome matrix - temporarily stores centrioles and forms mitotic spindle
-Centrioles - part of the centrosome, directs formation of mitotic spindles (the process of cell division)
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - cytoskeleton [made up of?]; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Cytoskeleton - support and provide roads for vesicular movement
—Microtubules (subunit tubulin)
—Intermediate filaments
—Microfilaments (subunit actin)
Cells (organelle and their functions - cytoplasm organelle - proteasome; ESSAY QUESTION)
-Proteasome - protein digesting enzymes
Space between cells in tissues?
Epithelial has no space between cell, CT does
Tissue repair begins with?
Tissue repair begins with inflammation (cardiac and nervous have virtually no regenerative capacity)
Embryonic germ layers
Three parts: ectoderm (become nervous), mesoderm (becomes muscle & connective), endoderm (becomes inner lining of digestive); epithelium can come from any of the three
Gland functions (and the odd gland)
Glands - secret mucin, electrolytes, hormones (endo), enzymes (exo), urea (nitrogen waste)
Goblet cell - the only gland that is unicellular, secretes mucous, exocrine (found in columnar simple & pseudo-stratified); extensive Golgi in cell; ductless, found close to epithelial surface
Microscope magnifications, magnification calculations, and rough measuring calculations
Eyepiece - 10x
Scan (red) - 4x (40x), 4.6mm
Low (yellow) - 10x (100x), 1.8mm
High (blue) - 40x (400x), .46mm
Calculating size (the mm/numbers of times an object could cross the lens diameter)
Ex. Object could fit across the low power (1.8mm) twice: 1.8mm/2(twice) = 0.9mm size
Membrane protein pump
Sodium/potassium - Na+/K+ pump - out (3) Na+, in (2) K+
Mesenchymal cells
Mesenchymal cells most commonly found in embryonic CT - important in clinical research
Blast cells
Undifferentiated, actively dividing cells
