Test 1 chapter 1-4 Flashcards
Science of Human development
seeks to understand how and why people change over time
Steps of the Scientific Method
- curiosity
- develop a hypothesis
- test the hypothesis
- draw conclusions
- report the results
hypothesis
the question your experiment will aim to answer
Replication
repeating the procedures and methods of a study with different participants
how studies are verified
Empirical Evidence
observations, experience or experiments tested over and over with similar results
cross sectional research
a group of people of one age are compared with a similar group of people of another age
most convenient, quickest and least expensive way to study developmental changes over time
does not always indicate process of development
longitudinal research
collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals
useful in studying development over many years
uncovers links that cross-sectional research does not
more time and resource intensive
Cohort-sequential research
researchers study several groups of people of different ages and follow them over the years
allows disentanglement of age and historical context
Nature
the influence of the genes that people inherit
Nurture
the enviornmental influences
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
family income, parent’s education and occupation
Ethnic group
ancestral heritage, national origin, religion, language
Critical Period
a time when something must occur to ensure normal development or the only time when an abnormality might occur
Sensitive Period
a particular development occurs more easily but not exclusively at a particular time
plasticity
the idea that abilities, personality and other human characteristics can change over time
Ecological systems approach
a perspective on human development that considers all the influences from the various contexts of development
cohort
people born within the same historical period who therefore move through life together, experiencing the same events, new technologies and cultural shifts at the same age
(the internet on different generations)
independent variable
the variable that is introduced to see the effect it has on the dependent variable
dependent variable
the variable that changes as a result of the new condition
Survey
a research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires or some other means
correlation
exits between two variables if one is more or less likely to occur when the other does
positive they both go up
negative they go in opposite directions
qualitative research
asking open ended questions, reporting answers in a narrative
quantitative research
test scores
numbers
data research
code of ethics
a set of moral principles or guidelines that members of a profession or group are expected to follow
difference-equals-deficit error
the belief that a deviation from the norm is inferior to behavior that meets the standards
Developmental Theory
a systematic statement of general principles that provides a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older
norm
an average or usual event or experience
grand theories
comprehensive, enduring and widely applied (not universally accepted)
Psychoanalytic, behaviorism and cognitive theories
psychoanalytic Theory
inner drives, deep motives and unconscious needs rooted in childhood
Developed by Freud and Erikson
Psychosexual Theory
Freud irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior 1. oral stage (0-1y) 2. anal stage (1-3y) 3. Phallic stage (3-6y) 4. Latency (6-11y) 5. genital stage (adolescence)
Psychosocial theory
Erikson
- trust v mistrust (0-1y)
- autonomy v. shame/doubt (1-3y)
- Initiative v. guilt (3-6y)
- industry v. inferiority (6-11y)
- identity v. role confusion (adolescence)
- intimacy v. isolation/ generativity v. stagnation/ integrity v. despair (adulthood)
Behaviorism
Watson
studies observable behavior, describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.
Focuses on conditioning
Conditioning
the process by which responses become linked to particular stimuli
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov
learning process in which a meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus
operant conditioning
BF Skinner
the learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired or something unwanted
Uses reinforcements
Reinforcement
consequences that increase the frequency or strength of a particular action
Social Learning Theory
Bandura
An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people ave over a person’s behavior
Uses modeling
Modeling
a person observes the actions of others and then copies them
Cognitive Development
Piaget
- sensorimotor (0-2y)
- Preoperational (2-6y)
- concrete operational (6-11y)
- formal operational (12-adulthood)
Cognitive equilibrium
a state of mental balance, no confusion
assimilation
new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into old ideas
Accommodation
old ideas are restructured to include new experiences
Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky
development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces
Zone of Proximal Development
a metaphorical area surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge and concepts that the person is close to acquiring but cannot yet master without help
Apprenticeship in thinking
how cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of society
guided participation
people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations
humanism
Maslow
stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
everyone has the same basic needs and drives
physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization
Eclectic Theory
takes a little bit from each of the different theories
this is the one used by most professionals
Genes
a small section of a chromosome
the basic unit for the transmission of heredity
heterozygous genes
two genes of one pair that differ in some way
homozygous genes
two genes of one pair that are exactly the same in every letter of their code
DNA
the chemical composition of the molecules that contain the genes, which are the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins
Chromosome
46 molecules of DNA that each cell has that contain all the genes
arranged into 23 pairs
Genome
the full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species
Monozygotic twins
multiples that form from the same zygote
DNA is identical
Dizygotic twins
multiples that form from two separate zygotes
DNA is about 50% identical
Allele
a variation that makes a gene different in some way from other genes for the same characteristic
Gamete
a reproductive cell
egg or sperm
zygote
a single cell formed by the union of two gametes
genotype
an organism’s entire genetic inheritance
Phenotype
the observable characteristics of a person
appearance, personality, intelligence
polygenetic
traits that are affected by many genes
multifactorial
traits that are influenced by many factors
epigenetics
the environmental factors that affect genes and gene experssion
stem cell
cells from which any other specialized type of cell can form
Additive genes
the phenotype reflects the contributions of every gene that is involved
a combination of the inherited genes
Dominant-recessive pattern
the interaction of a herozygous pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reflects one allele (the dominant) more than the other (the recessive)
down syndrome
trisomy 21
a condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of 46 with 3 chromosomes at the 21st site
Distinctive characteristics including unusual facial features, heart abnormalities and language difficulties
X-linked trait
a trait or disorder carried and passed on through the X chromosome
Assisted Reproductive Technology
a general term for the techniques that help infertile couples conceive and sustain a pregnancy
In Vitro Fertiziation
takes place outside a woman’s body
involves mixing sperm with ova surgically removed from the woman’s ovary
if a zygote is produced it is inserted into a woman’s uterus where it may implant and develop into a baby
Genetic counseling
consultation and testing by trained experts that enable individuals to learn about their genetic heritage, including harmful conditions that they might pass along to any children
tests are confidential and the decisions are made by the clients
Germinal period
first two weeks of prenatal development after conception
rapid cell division/cell differentiation
50% of miscarriages occur
Embryonic period
weeks 3-8
basic forms of all body structures develop
fetal period
week 9-birth
organs become more mature and function on their own
Implantation
10 days after conception
the developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus
placenta
the organ that surrounds and protects the developing creature
Cephalo-Caudal
pattern of development literally meaning “head to tail”
primitive streak
developing neural tube which eventually becomes the central nervous system
Age of Viability
the age at which a fetus might be able to survive outside the mother’s uterus if specialized medical care is available
teratogens
agents and conditions, including viruses, drugs and chemicals, that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death
effect all women differently due to the threshold effect
threshold effect
when a teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level
behavioral teratogen
agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain impairing the future child’s intellectual and emotional functioning
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
a cluster of birth defects that may occur in the fetus of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant
includes abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth and slowed mental development
occurs early in pregnancy
Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)
occur later in pregnancy
lead to hyperactivity, poor concentration, impaired spatial reasoning and slow learnign
Sonogram
an image of a fetus produced by using high frequency sound waves
Labor
1st stage- cervix dilates to allow passage of the baby’s head which moves to the birth canal
2nd stage- the baby moves through the birth canal and is delivered
3rd stage- the placental is delivered, usually naturally
Cesarean Section
the fetus is removed through an incision in the mother’s abdomen
Apgar scale
a quick assessment of a newborn’s health
color, heart rate, reflexes, muscle tone and respiratory effort scored on a scale of 0-2
Brazelton Neonational Behavioral Assessment Scale
a test that measures responsiveness
records behaviors including 20 reflexes
Reflexes
involuntary response to a particular stimulus
breathing, thrashing, shivering, sucking, rooting, swallowing, spitting up
Babinski reflex
when feet are stroked, their toes fan upward
stepping reflex
when held upright with feet touching a flat surface, infants move their legs as if to walk
swimming reflex
when laid horizontally on their stomachs, infants stretch out their arms and legs
Palmar grasping reflex
when something touches the infant’s palms, they grip it tightly
Moro Reflex
when something startles them, infants fling their arms outward and then bring them together on their chest, as if to hold onto something while crying with wide-open eyes
Kangaroo Care
a type of care when the newborn lays on the naked chest of the mother or father
Post Pardon Depression
experienced by 8-15% of women
