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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

cytoplasm

A

protoplasm outside the nucleus, the site of all metabolic functions in the cell.

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2
Q

ribosomes

A

protoplasmic organelle containing ribonucleic acid; necessary for protein synthesis

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3
Q

nucleus

A

center; a portion of protoplasm containing the genetic material, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane

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4
Q

nucleolus

A

mass of stainable material in the cell nucleus that houses nuclear RNA

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5
Q

nucleic acids

A

major class of organic compounds in the cell composed of a sugar or derivative of a sugar, phosphoric acid, and a base, RNA and DNA

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6
Q

cytokinesis

A

division of the cytoplasm during telophase of mitosis and meiosis

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7
Q

haploid

A

having half the diploid number of chromosomes found in somatic cells

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8
Q

diploid

A

possessing 2 sets of chromosomes in reference to somatic cells, which have 2 times the number of chromosome present in the egg or sperm

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9
Q

what original ionization occurs directly on target molecules, we refer to this as?

A

direct effects

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10
Q

when original ionization occurs with water and transfers ionization to target molecules, we refer to this as

A

indirect

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11
Q

who exposed human uterine cervix cells to varying doses of radiation and experimentally determined reproductive failure by counting the number of colonies formed by these irradiated cells

A

puck and marcus

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12
Q

an increased production of free radicals when ionizing radiation is delivered in the presence of oxygen is named

A

oxygen effect

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13
Q

the conventional unit used to define a unit of radiation exposure or quantity a measure of the ionization of air that is created by x and gamma radiation below 3 MeV

A

roentgen

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14
Q

the SI unit used to define a unit of radiation exposure or quantity, a measure of the ionization of air that is created by x and gamma radiation below 3 MeV

A

Couloumb per kg

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15
Q

the conventional unit of dose equivalent or occupational exposure; represents the amount of radiation received by personnel

A

Rem

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16
Q

the SI unit of dose equivalent or occupational exposure; represents the amount of radiation received by personnel

A

Sievert

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17
Q

the conventional unit that describes the energy that is absorbed in matter from any type of ionizing radiation, and is considered the unit of absorbed dose

A

rad

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18
Q

the SI unit that describes the energy that is absorbed in matter from any type of ionizing radiation, and is considered the unit of absorbed dose

A

Gray

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19
Q

the conventional unit of radioactivity

A

Curie

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20
Q

the SI unit of radioactivity

A

Becquerel

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21
Q

how many chromosomes do we have

A

46 total

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22
Q

match the DNA pairings adenine, guanine

A

Thymine, Cytosine

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23
Q

RNA is a ___ nucleotide

A

single stranded

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24
Q

what are the 3 varieties of RNA

A

m-RNA, t-RNA, r-RNA

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25
Q

the normal number of chromosomes for humans is termed the ___ number

A

diploid

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26
Q

the diploid number is __

A

2n

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27
Q

during which phase of the cell cycle does radiation therapy work best?

A

Metaphase

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28
Q

during which phase of the cell cycle does chemotherapy work best

A

S

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29
Q

at the beginning of meiosis, a germ cell contains twice the amount of genetic material

A

true

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30
Q

cells that are considered highly radiosensitive include

A

lymphocytes, spermatogonia, erythroblasts, and intestinal crypt cells

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31
Q

cells that have an intermediate radiosensitivity include

A

endothelial cells, osteoblasts, spermatids, and fibroblasts

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32
Q

cells that have low radiosensitivity include

A

muscle cells, nerve cells, and chondrocytes

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33
Q

what is considered to be the most radioresistant cell cycle phase

A

S

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34
Q

what is the most radiosensitive part of the cel

A

DNA

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35
Q

cell death before entering mitosis is known as

A

interphase death

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36
Q

radiation interaction with cells has to do with chance and probability. the radiation may or may not interact; if it does interact, there may or may not be cell damage

A

true

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37
Q

the interaction of radiation within the cell is not random

A

false

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38
Q

can one determine whether visible changes to cells, tissues, and organs are caused by radiation, versus by other sources

A

no

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39
Q

a measure of the rate at which energy is deposited as a charged particle travels through matter is referred to as

A

LET

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40
Q

the higher the LET of radiation, the lower the chance for a biologic interaction

A

false

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41
Q

low LET to high LET

A

cobalt, diagnostic X-rays, protons, neutrons

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42
Q

dose in rads from 250 keV xray

A

RBE

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43
Q

factors that influence RBE include

A

radiation dose rate, physiologic condition, cell or tissue type, radiation type, and biologic result being examined. ALL ANSWERS

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44
Q

comparing LET and RBE as LET increases RBE decreases

A

false

45
Q

the response of biologic tissue to radiation is greater when irradiated in the oxygenated, or aerobic state than when irradiated in anoxic or hypoxic conditions

A

this is known as oxygen effect

46
Q

who was responsible for stating stem or immature cells are more radioactive than mature cells, younger tissues and organs are more radiosensitive that older tissues and organs, the higher the metabolic cell activity, the more radiosensitive it is, the greater the proliferation and growth rate for tissues, the greater the responsibility

A

bergonie and tribondeay

47
Q

Who did experiments on mammals and demonstrated that there are two factors that affect the manifestation of radiation damage to the cell as follows:

  1. The amount of biologic stress the cell receives.
  2. Pre- and post-irradiation conditions to which the cell is exposed.
A

ancel and vitemberger

48
Q

phase 1 of mitosis

A

prophase

49
Q

phase 2 of mitosis

A

metaphase

50
Q

phase 3 of mitosis

A

anaphase

51
Q

phase 4

A

telophase

52
Q

the dose of radiation that produces a given biologic response under anoxic conditions divided by the dose of radiation that produces the same biologic response under aerobic conditions is the definition

A

OER

53
Q

T/F since the response of biologic tissue to radiation is greater when irradiated in an oxygenated state, all radiation therapy patients should be connected to oxygen via a nasal cannula or mask during the treatment

A

false

54
Q

most radiation actions with humans are

A

indirect

55
Q

the irradiation of ___ is the principal cause of effects from radiation

A

water

56
Q

what is uncharged molecule that contains a single unpaired electron in its outermost valence shell, which makes it chemically unstable and highly reactive?

A

free radical

57
Q

approximately two-third of all radiation damage following the radiolysis of water is caused from

A

OH and H2o2

58
Q

the macromolecules are irradiated___, they are much more radiosensitive

A

in vivo

59
Q

this occurs when the thread or backbone of the long-chain molecule is broken

A

main-chain scission

60
Q

certain macromolecules have spur like extensions off the main chain, while others develop these spurs after being irradiated. after being irradiated. after being irradiated, these spurs can act as if they had sticky material on their ends. this stickiness causes the macromolecule to connect to another macromolecule, or to another section of the same molecule. this is…

A

cross linking

61
Q

irradiating macromolecules may result in disturbance of single chemical bones, which create molecular lesions, or ___

A

point lesions

62
Q

what causes slight molecular changes, which in turn causes the cell to function incorrectly?

A

point lesions

63
Q

irradiating macromolecules may result in either death of the cell or late effects

A

true

64
Q

what is considered the most radiosensitive macromolecule

A

DNA

65
Q

DNA can be injured without producing visible chromosomal aberrations. even though this damage is reversible, it can lead to death of the cell and ultimately destroy tissues or organs

A

true

66
Q

a mutation that occurs as a result of a change to a single DNA base pair, created by one nucleotide being exchanged for another

A

point mutations

67
Q

chromosome hits represent critical ___ damage

A

dna

68
Q

a chromosomal effect that causes a loss of genetic material is referred to as

A

deletion

69
Q

T/F It is theorized that human chromosomes have more than a single target. Thus, it is feasible for a single chromosome to receive more than one hit. These multi-hit aberrations are not unusual.

A

true

70
Q

what is a chromosome that has two centers or two centromeres

A

dicentric

71
Q

Altering of a chromosome either by a portion of it transferring to another chromosome or to another section of the same chromosome is referred to as __________ (what?)

A

reciprocal translocations

72
Q

the number of chromosomes in germ cells is referred to as the ___ number

A

haploid

73
Q

the normal diploid or 2n number in humans is

A

46

74
Q

the primary function of ___ is to provide the basic building blocks of cells and tissues

A

proteins

75
Q

the primary function of ___ is to provide energy necessary to al basic cellular functions

A

carbohydrates

76
Q

which organic components in the cell direct cellular information and transmit genetic information between cells and generation? hint: they also play a role in protein synthesis

A

nucleic acids

77
Q

which organic compounds in the cell have various functions, including storing energy and providing protection

A

lipids

78
Q

insulin, albumin, hemoglobin, and enzymes are examples of which of the following organic components in the cell

A

proteins

79
Q

starch, glycogen, lactose, and sucrose are examples of which of the following organic components in the cell

A

carbohydrates

80
Q

what percentage of the cell protoplasm is composed of water

A

70-85%

81
Q

the site of all metabolic activity in the cell is the __

A

cytoplasm

82
Q

this organelle in the cell which contains enzymes and carbohydrates is considered one of the initial theories of radiation cell kill…

A

lysosome

83
Q

how much time does it take to complete the G1 phase of the cell cycle

A

8-10 hours

84
Q

how much time does it take to complete the G2 phase of the cell cycle

A

4-6 hours

85
Q

how much time does it take to complete the S phase of the cell cycle

A

6-8 hours

86
Q

muscle cramps can result from the loss of

A

calcium salts

87
Q

how many different type of amino acids are there?

A

22

88
Q

what is protoplasm outside the nucleus called

A

cytoplasm

89
Q

radiation interaction in a cell is

A

non selective

90
Q

the time between injury and the expression of that injury by a cell or tissue is referred to as

A

latent period

91
Q

what is more likely after high LET radiation

A

direct action of radiation on a cell

92
Q

LET is a function of the __ and __ of the radiation

A

mass and charge

93
Q

highly ionizing particles produce many ionizations in ___ distances

A

short

94
Q

low LET radiations produce sparse interactions, and ionizations are a ___ distance from each other

A

long

95
Q

not all target damage is equal

A

true

96
Q

does a single strand break have long term consequences to the cell

A

no

97
Q

double strand breaks are difficult for the cell to repair and show a correlation with cell killing

A

true

98
Q

the types of DNA molecule damage include

A

main chain scission, one side, both sides, and cross linking. rung breakage, causing bases to separate, a changing or loss of base

99
Q

nonthreshold

A

assumes that any radiation dose produces an effect

100
Q

according to the target theory

A

DNA is considered the critical target

101
Q

of the following stages of mitosis, which is considered the most radiosensitive

A

metaphase

102
Q

if a DNA base sequence is altered, which of the following would occur?

A

a gene mutation

103
Q

for protein synthesis to occur, messenger RNA carries information to which of the following

A

DNA

104
Q

transfer RNA carries which of the following in order to synthesize protein

A

amino acids

105
Q

which term is used in describing cell damage from radiation that is not sufficient to kill the cell

A

sublethal damage

106
Q

why is free radical formation considered such a threat to humans

A

free radicals have been observed to produce toxic effects

107
Q

according to target theory, which of the following is thought to be the principle target of cell damage

A

DNA

108
Q

which of the following types of irradiation damage most likely causes abnormalities in base sequences and thus cell mutation

A

base damage

109
Q

where is the majority of a cells genetic information found

A

nucleus

Rad Bio (3 decks)

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