test 1

Question 1

what is the most effective note taking strategy and why

Answer 1

handwriting notes. you’re not extracting key points while you’re typing

Question 2

learning styles misconception

Answer 2

• preferred learning style doesn’t have any added benefit

- more than 71 learning styles have been proposed

Question 3

desirable difficulties

Answer 3

learning is best when you have to push yourself & it’s a bit difficult for you

Question 4

multitasking misconception

Answer 4

• you do not learn as well or efficiently when multitasking

- you’re not focusing on multiple things at once, you’re attention is just switching back and forth

Question 5

elaboration in learning

Answer 5

good to relate learned information to other things and really think about them

Question 6

levels of processing to help you learn

Answer 6

• deep level is most meaningful
• shallow level is good for momentary retention (why rereading notes is not effective)
• better way would be to question yourself and make yourself elaborate

Question 7

distributed practice

Answer 7

taking breaks while studying and practicing throughout the day (which is more effective than massed practice)

Question 8

what is the definition of learning

Answer 8

relatively enduring change in the potential to engage in behavior due to experience
- excludes anything that happens without experience (maturation, developmental processes, happening by chance, anything that happens due to a temporary state change)

Question 9

non-associative learning

Answer 9

changing behavior just based on somethings existence in the environment (habituation, sensitization)

Question 10

habituation

Answer 10

stop/reduce responding to an unchanging stimulus happening at an intervaled rate (going into a room, smelling something strong, and not realizing you still smell it a few minutes later OR clock ticking etc)

Question 11

sensitization

Answer 11

increased response to an unchanging stimulus (pebble in your shoe OR a tag in a shirt etc)

Question 12

associative learning

Answer 12

classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Question 13

classical conditioning

Answer 13

conditioning a response to a stimulus that previously didn’t elicit a reaction

Question 14

classical conditioning set up

Answer 14

unconditioned stimulus US (getting hit) elicits unconditioned response UR (flinching when hit) —> conditioned stimulus CS (the word “can”) elicits conditioned response CR (flinching before being hit to prepare)

Question 15

acquisition (classical conditioning)

Answer 15

period in which the response is conditioned

Question 16

extinction (classical conditioning)

Answer 16

response will be extinguished once the stimulus goes away

Question 17

spontaneous recovery

Answer 17

conditioned stimulus elicits conditioned response out of the blue after extinction

Question 18

stimulus generalization

Answer 18

generalizing conditioned response to a similar stimuli

- there is an extent to which they must be similar to be generalized

Question 19

behavioral indicators of learning

Answer 19

an increase or decrease in a particular response

Question 20

behaviors changes excluded from “learning”

Answer 20

fatigue
motivation
evolution
maturation

Question 21

assumption of learning

Answer 21

once something is learned it will remembered permanently/a long time

Question 22

requirement to learn

Answer 22

practice practice practice

Question 23

behaviorally silent learning

Answer 23

learning may be behaviorally silent or only evident under specific circumstances

Question 24

stimulus-stimulus learning

Answer 24

learning that is not evident in behavior until given a specific task (i.e. cooking etc)

Question 25

performance

Answer 25

observable actions that indicate learning | - depends on motivation and stimulus conditions or behavioral opportunities provided by the environment

Question 26

naturalistic observations

Answer 26

observing and measuring behavior as it occurs in natural settings

Question 27

experimental observations

Answer 27

measuring behavior under conditions designed by the experimenter - causes of behavior can only be understood this way

Question 28

fundamental learning experiment

Answer 28

to conclude that a behavior change is a result of learning, you must compare behavior in 2 conditions - compare individuals with and without specific experience related to learning

Question 29

stimulus pairing

Answer 29

unconditioned and conditioned stimulus should not be presented at the same time - won't be associated together and predictive

Question 30

forward pairing

Answer 30

conditioned stimulus precedes unconditioned stimulus (leads to best learning)

Question 31

simultaneous pairing

Answer 31

cs and us @ same time (just okay for learning)

Question 32

backwards pairing

Answer 32

us precedes cs (almost never works)

Question 33

operant conditioning (aka instrumental conditioning)

Answer 33

for more voluntary and complicated behaviors

Question 34

successive approximations

Answer 34

getting closer to desired behaviors | - rewarding behaviors getting closer to the goal

Question 35

operant conditioning pairing

Answer 35

behavior and a response to the behavior

Question 36

thorndike

Answer 36

law of effect - cats in puzzle boxes - reward: escape - more likely to do whatever they did to escape

Question 37

law of effect

Answer 37

if a behavior is followed by something satisfying, the behavior is more likely to be repeated - consequences are critical - more than 1 repetition is required

Question 38

skinner

Answer 38

formalized law of effect | - skinner boxes: recorded # of responses and duration

Question 39

reinforcers

Answer 39

anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated

Question 40

positive reinforcers

Answer 40

adding something to increase the likelihood of a behavior (saying something nice or giving a hug)

Question 41

negative reinforcers

Answer 41

taking away something to reinforce behavior (doing well on a work presentation means you don't have to work on saturday

Question 42

punishers

Answer 42

anything the decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated

Question 43

positive punishment

Answer 43

adding something to decrease behavior (yelling, physical)

Question 44

negative punishment

Answer 44

taking something away to decrease behavior (taking something they enjoy)

Question 45

why is punishment less effective than reinforcement

Answer 45

- punishment has to be administered every single time | - giving attention through punishment turns out to be a reinforcer

Question 46

scheduled reinforcements

Answer 46

fixed or varied and ration or interval

Question 47

fixed reinforcement

Answer 47

set identical amount of reward

Question 48

varied reinforcement

Answer 48

value of reward varies

Question 49

ratio reinforcement

Answer 49

reward occurs after a certain amount of behaviors (gets results faster but won't last as long)

Question 50

interval reinforcement

Answer 50

reward occurs after a specific amount of time (longer onset period but lasts once reward stops)

Question 51

fixed ratio

Answer 51

same amount of behaviors to get rewarded

Question 52

varied ratio

Answer 52

randomly rewarded after different amounts of behavior

Question 53

fixed interval

Answer 53

set amount of time to get rewarded

Question 54

varied interval

Answer 54

varied time to get rewarded

Question 55

biological constraints

Answer 55

certain constraints that may prevent a behavior from occurring (hard to teach things that dont get naturally paired together like yawning and food)

Question 56

cognitive psychology

Answer 56

focus on mental processes and thought processes

Question 57

subtopics of cognitive psychology (7)

Answer 57

``` attention perception memory language intelligence decision making sensation ```

Question 58

cognitive science

Answer 58

``` interdisciplinary studying the mind - philosophy - artificial intelligence - neuroscience - anthropology - linguistics not the same as cognitive neuro ```

Question 59

wilhelm wundt

Answer 59

1st psychologist and 1st cognitive psychologist - took philosophical concepts and applied physiology - introspection: detailed reporting of sensory experiences

Question 60

ebbinghaus

Answer 60

studied memory first (self-reported and used lists of nonsense words) - illustrated 4 key stages of a memory experiment --> learning, delay, test, relearning

Question 61

william james

Answer 61

1st textbook, "principles of psychology" | - tip of the tongue phenomenon

Question 62

john watson

Answer 62

used rats and mazes with rewards - removed senses and rats could still complete maze - realized they used motor habits

Question 63

mary whiton calkins

Answer 63

recency effects

Question 64

recency effects

Answer 64

recall is especially accurate for final items in a series of stimuli

Question 65

gestalt psychology

Answer 65

humans have basic tendencies to actively organize what we see

Question 66

aristotle

Answer 66

emphasized empirical evidence | - studied perception, memory, and mental imagery

Question 67

behaviorism

Answer 67

focus on objective observable reactions to stimuli in the environment

Question 68

cognitive revolution causes

Answer 68

``` disappointed with behaviorist outlook - difficult to explain complex human behavior - research in memory was blossoming - development in linguistics cognitive psy birth in 1956 ```

Question 69

information processing approach

Answer 69

1. mental processes are similar to a computer | 2. information progresses through our cognitive system in a series of stages

Question 70

general assumptions of information processing approach

Answer 70

- stimuli are present, info is sent to sensory receptors through physical medium (inputting info on computer) - info that is provided to brain via senses is processed and decoded over multiple processing stages - after stimulus has been processed a response occurs

Question 71

serial processing

Answer 71

system must complete one step or processing stage before info can proceed to next step

Question 72

connectionist approach

Answer 72

cognitive processes can be understood in terms of networks that link neuron-like processing units (simultaneous)

Question 73

themes of textbook

Answer 73

- cognitive processes are active - cognitive processes are efficient and accurate - cognitive processes handle positive information better - cognitive processes are interrelated, do not operate in isolation - rely on bottom up top fown processing