Test 1 Flashcards
Energy in motivation
behavior that is relatively strong and persistent.
direction in motivation
behavior that is aimed towards achieving a particular purpose or goal.
the core problems that are solved in Motivation study
What starts behavior
How is behavior sustained over time
Why is behavior directed toward some ends but away from others?
Why does behavior change its direction
Why does behavior stop
Why does it change in energy.
the four processes that give motivation its energy and direction
needs
Cognition
emotions
external events
Hierarchy of the Four Sources of Motivation
motivation
^
internal . external motives
^
cognition emotions needsneeds
The conditions within an individual that are both essential and necessary for the maintenance of life, nurturance of growth and well being.
Needs generate wants and desires
Needs can be physical or psychological
Cognition
These are mental events, thoughts, beliefs, expectations.
Cognitive sources of motivations revolve around a persons way of thinking.
Includes plans, goals and beliefs in abilities and expectations for success or failure.
Emotions
Emotions are short-lived subjective. They orchestrate and organize four different aspects of experience:
- Feelings; subjective verbal descriptions of emotional experience
- Physiological preparedness; how our bodies physically mobilizes itself to meet situational demands
- Expression; how we communicate our emotions publicly to others
- Emotions allow us to anticipate and to react adaptively to important events in our lives.
Expressions of Motivation
Behavior
engagement
brain and physiology activations
self report
behavioral expressions of motivation
Attention Effort Latency Persistence Choice Probability of response Facial Expressions Bodily gestures
engagement
Our behavioral investment, how actively involved they’re in a task.
behavioral engagement
emotional engagement
cognitive engagement
voice
behavioral engagement
attention
effort
persistence
emotional engagement
interest
enjoyment
low anger
low frustration
cognitive engagement
sophisticated learning strategies (numonics)
active self-regulation (setting timelines for yourself).
voice
Offers Suggestions
Makes Contributions
Asks Questions
brain and physiological activity as expressions of motivation
Brain activity - activation of certain brain structures such as the amygdala (fear) or prefrontal cortex (attention and setting goals)
Hormonal activity - chemicals in saliva or blood, such as cortisol (stress) or catecholamines (fight-or-flight reaction).
Ocular activity eye behavior - pupil size (pupil decreasing, increasing focus: extent of mental activity), eye blinks (changing cognitive states), and eye movements (steering into nothing: reflective through)
Electrodermal - electrical changes on the surface of the skin, expressing threat activity or stimulus significance)
Skeletal activity - activity of the musculature, as with facial expressisons (specific emotion) and bodily gestures (desire to leave).
thoughts behind Motivation Benefits Adaptation
We need to take corrective action that can preserve and enhance well being as circumstances and environments constantly change.
Motivation and emotions provide resources to allow us to respond to environmental change. When motivation sours, personal adaptation suffers
Directs attention and prepares action
Motives have a way of gaining and sometimes demanding our attention so that we attend to one aspect of the environment over another
salience
the quality of being particularly noticeable or important; prominence.
Using Motivational Theories
to Solve Practical Problems
Practical Problem - bad grades
Given What I know About Human Motivation & Emotion - adding theory to increase motivation
Proposed Solution/ Intervention, if any - will my implications help or hinder/harm
Plato
- Bodily appetites (sex, hunger)
- socially referenced standards of competition (e.g. honor or shame)
- calculating basis of decision making (e.g. choosing, reason)
Aristotle
- nutritive (impulsive, irrational, animal-like bodily urges necessary for the maintenance of life)
- sensitive (also bodily urges, but regulated by pleasure and pain)
- Rational (unique to humans. Intellectual and includes WILL)
Dualism
based off theories of Thomas Aquinas and Descartes
- The mind is rational, intelligent and spiritual
- The body is irrational, impulsive and biological
Grand theories
Will, instinct, drive (theories that try to explain all of a behavior, or motivation.
Instinct
Based off Darwin theory (our drive was based off our genes)
Physiological analysis of motivation by focusing on the mechanistic.
The appeal of instinct doctrine was its ability to explain unlearned behavior that had energy and purpose
(i.e., goal-directed biological impulses).
William James
Popularized Darwin theories on instinct.
(physical instincts and psychological instincts). one of the founders of psychology.
Drive
Drive theory view that behavior was motivated to the extent that it served the needs of the organism and restored a biological homeostasis.
The function of behavior is to service bodily needs
The two most widely accepted models of Drive were proposed by Freud and Hull
A SUMMARY OF FREUD’S DRIVE THEORY
Source
Impetus
Object
Aim
once a bodily deficit begins, the body is taken out of homeostasis and won’t return to normal until homeostasis is restored
HULL’S DRIVE THEORY
sEr = sHr x D
the strength of the behavior = the habit of behavior time the drive
Added external behaviors to take into consideration external drives
K = Incentive motivation
Essentially stated that our behavior can become predictable.
Decline of GRAND THEORIES
Will - The philosophical study of the will turned out to be a dead end that explained very little about motivation, as it actually raised more questions than it answered.
Instinct - The physiological study of the instinct proved to be an intellectual dead end as well, as it became clear that “naming is not explaining.”
Drive - Drive theory proved itself to be overly limited in scope, and with its rejection came the field’s disillusionment with grand theories in general, though several additional grand motivational principles emerged with some success, including incentive and arousal.
Post-Drive Grand Theories
Incentive -
Behavior is motivated by reward (hedonism). Through learning people formed expectations of gratification
incentives and expectancies
motivation can arise through experience rather than biology
3) motivation can change from moment-to-moment
Arousal -
1) Aspects of the environment (e.g. how stimulating, novel or stressful) effect the arousal state of the brain
2) Arousal has a curvilinear relationship to behavior
Low arousal = boredom
High arousal = fear, anxiety
3) Essentially drive theory defined in terms of neurophysiology and cognition
Cortisol
the stress hormone
Three principles of Motivated and Emotional Brains
Day to day events stir biochemical agents into action (loss of fluids) which cause biochemical agents to stimulate these brain structures (Drive) which cause brain structures to generate specific motivational states (thirst).
steps that attribute to the motivated brain
Environmental event (food deprivation from dieting) causes a biochemical agent (the hormone Ghrelin) which affects brain structure (G stimulates the hypothalamus) which arouses the psychological experience of hunger (Motivation)
Steps that activate the Emotional Brain
Environmental Event (Compliment) triggers the release of dopamine (Biochemical agent) which affects the brain structure (stimulates limbic structures) which causes a change in emotion (Feeling nice, pleasure)
Two ways in which we can look inside the brain
Surgeon’s view
fMRI
Hypothalamus
Part of the brain that regulates a range of important biological functions. Including eating, drinking, and mat- ing (via the motivations for hunger, satiety, thirst, and sex) (1%)
Approach-Oriented
Medial forebrain bundle
large collection of pathway-like fibers that connect the hypothalamus to other limbic structures. The “pleasure center” of the brain.
Approach-Oriented
Orbitofrontal cortex
processes such incentive-related information that helps people make choices between options, such as which product among many to buy or whether to drink orange juice or water.
Approach-Oriented
Amygdala (meaning “almond-shaped”)
detects and responds to threatening and emotionally significant events, though each of its differ- ent nuclei serves a different function. Stimulation of one part of the amygdala generates emotional anger, while stimulation of another part generates emotional fear and defensive behavior.
Avoidance-Oriented
Septal area
Pleasure center associated with sociability, sexuality
Approach-Oriented
Nucleus Accumbens
plays a critical role in the experience of pleasure from naturally occurring reinforcers (good food, social acceptance) and drugs that contribute to addictions. It generates a “liking” reaction to different incoming sensations, such as food.
Approach-Oriented
Anterior cingulate cortex
involved in the control of day-to-day mood, volition, and making choices. Decreased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex is associated with felt sadness and depression. The anterior cingulate cortex is important to volition (will) and the mental activity underlying the act of making a choice.
Approach-Oriented
Cerebral cortex
Frontal lobes
Making plans, setting goals, formulating intentions
Approach-Oriented
Left prefrontal cerebral cortex
Approach motivational and emotional tendencies
Approach-Oriented
Medial prefrontal cerebral cortex
Learning response-outcome contingencies that underlie perceived control beliefs and mastery motivation
Approach-Oriented
Hippocampus
Behavior inhibition system during unexpected events
Avoidance-Oriented
Right prefrontal cerebral cortex
Withdraw motivational and emotional tendencies
Avoidance-Oriented
Behavioral Inhibition System Items
Behavioral reactions that to a negative stimulus
Behavior Activation System
Behavioral reactions that to a positive stimulus
Reticular Formation
plays a key role in arousal and in the process of awakening the brain’s motivational and emotional concerns. (mouse)
Organization and functions of the Nervous System
NS
PNS (Nerves) CNS
^ (Brain&Spine)
Somatic S (Voluntary Muscles) Autonomic S (involuntary Muscles)
Sympathetic system Parasympathetic system
Four motivationally relevant neurotransmitter pathways
(1) dopamine, which generates good feelings associated with reward
a. Tuberoinfundibular
b. Nigrostriatal
c. Mesocorticolimbic
(2) serotonin, which influences mood and emotion
(3) norepinephrine which regulates arousal and alertness
(4) endorphin, which inhibits pain, anxiety, and fear by generating good feelings to counter these negative feelings
Four motivationally relevant neurotransmitter pathways
(1) dopamine, which generates good feelings associated with reward
a. Tuberoinfundibular: in hypothalamus
b. Nigrostriatal: Motor control
c. Mesocorticolimbic: Pleasure
(2) serotonin, which influences mood and emotion
(3) norepinephrine which regulates arousal and alertness
(4) endorphin, which inhibits pain, anxiety, and fear by generating good feelings to counter these negative feelings
Axon
the storage facility for neurotransmitters.
Synapse
a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter..
This begins when neurotransmitters held in the axon move into the synapse (between the axon and dendrite (lining)) to another nerve. The receptor site binds with the neurotransmitters, changing potential.
Receptor Theory
Only A specific Neurotransmitter will match with a specific receptor (Dopamine connects only to Dopamine receptor).
Dopamine Affect
Dopamine Release»_space; Emotional Positivity»_space;
Enhanced Functioning
(Creativity and
Insightful problem solving)
Dopaminergic
The dopamine pathway is particularly important to understanding motivation and emotion, as its primary motivational function is to generate positive feelings—an experience of pleasure or reward
VTA
Regulator of dopamine output to parts of the brain, based off what a person expects and actually receives, in regards to rewards from a particular course of action.
Dopamine release and incentives
Incentives (stimuli that foreshadow the imminent delivery of rewards) triggers dopamine release.
Stimuli that foreshadow the imminent delivery of rewards — pleasurable thought.
Example - Kush, smelling Kush, or just thinking about Kush.
Dopamine Release and Reward
Dopamine release teaches us which events in the environments are rewarding.
To acquire—and continue to maintain—incentive motivational properties, then dopamine release needs to occur
Dopamine and Motivated Action
Dopamine release activates voluntary goal-directed approach responses.
affects two brain events activation of voluntary goal-directed approach responses. The dopamine pathway includes an interface with the body’s muscular/motor system via the nucleus accumbens, which is the brain structure involved in the release of locomotion involved in goal-directed behavior . Thus, stimulation of the dopamine pathway increases the likelihood of approach behavior —partly because good feelings create approach motivation but also partly because activation of the motor system releases goal-directed approach behavior.
Dangers of dopamine
Addictive drugs are potent reinforcers because their repeated usage produces hypersensitivity to dopamine stimulation.
Liking and Wanting (use of dopamine)
Wanting is a motivational state that occurs prior to receiving a reward,
liking is a motivational state that occurs after reward receipt (pleasure of preference)
They usually go hand in hand but you can want something (drugs) even though you don’t necessarily like it.
For the full experience of reward, wanting and liking need to occur together.
three integral hormones to motivation and emotion
Cortisol, Testosterone, and Oxytocin
Cortisol
the so-called “stress hormone (Glucocorticoid).” When exposed to a stressor (test you’re unprepared for), a person’s hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical system reacts (regulator), releasing cortisol from the adrenal gland.
Testosterone
underlies the mating effort—the investment of time and energy into same-sex competition and mate-seeking behavior.
For instance, high testosterone levels help Wall Street stockbrokers make more money (compete better) during the day’s trading.
High associated with cheating, while low associated with commitment and nurturing (single vs yolo).
Oxytocin
known as the bonding hormone, is often referred to as the “tend and befriend stress response”. Helps people make attachments, confide in people during stress and is important in womens motivation.
The H-P-A Axis
Controls the stress function. stress will cause the hypothalamus to activate crf in the anterior pituitary, creating acth in the adrenal glands in the kidneys. this will release cortisol in the kidneys that will go to the brain and cause more stress.
The H-P-G Axis
controls the sexual functions (gnrh) goes to the anterior paturitary to lh (luteinizing hormone) and fsh (follicle stimulating hormone) go to the balls or ovaries which attribute to testosterone, progesterone, estrogen
The social brain in motivation
Environmental events act as the natural stimulators of the brain’s basic motivational process.
brain awareness in motivation
we Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of Our Behavior
