Exam 2 revised Flashcards
What is cognitive dissonance?
With cognitive dissonance, two beliefs are dissonant when the opposite of one belief follows from the other (being a moral person but lying). Just how psychologically uncomfortable cognitive dissonance is depends on its magnitude. When intense and uncomfortable enough, dissonance takes on motivational properties, and the person begins to seek ways to eliminate, or at least reduce, the dissonance.
What is the motivational role of the ‘possible self’?
Self-schema change can occur through a deliberate effort to advance the present self toward a desired future possible self. Possible selves represent individuals’ ideas of what they would like to become and also what they are afraid of becoming
Some hoped-for selves might include, for instance, the successful self, the creative self, the rich self, the thin self, or the popular self; some feared selves might include the unemployed self, the disabled self, the overweight self, or the rejected self.
Possible selves represent the future self. The motivational function of a possible self therefore operates like that of a goal (or personal striving). A possible self provides the individual with an attractive incentive for which to strive. It can therefore act as a potent impetus for action by energizing effort and persistence and by directing attention and strategic planning
What is the role of ‘success feedback’ in achievement motivation?
in relation to Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Achievement (Entrepreneurship). Entrepreneurship provides concrete, rapid performance feedback (moment-to-moment profits and losses), feedback that generates emotions such as pride and satisfaction, and feedback that allows one to diagnose personal competence and rate of improvement on a continual basis.
High-need achievers prefer just about any occupation that offers challenge, independent work, personal responsibility, and rapid performance feedback
the person has encountered a standard of excellence and has been energized by it, largely because he or she knows that the forthcoming performance will produce an emotionally meaningful evaluation of personal competence.
Quasi-needs
situationally induced wants that create tense energy to engage in behavior capable of reducing the built-up tension
the right then and there needs that go away once fulfilled (bandaid)
TOTE Unit
The cognitive mechanism by which plans energize and direct behavior
Test: Compare Present State with Ideal State
Operate: Act on Environment To Realize Ideal State
Exit: Present State inCongruity with Ideal State
Influenced by:
Ms/Maf
Ps/Pf
Is/If
Social needs
An acquired psychological process that grows out of one’s socialization history that activates emotional responses to a particular need-relevant incentive
Why are goals important?
Sets a standard * A reference point for guiding subsequent mental and physical action so one can evaluate adequacy for one's performance.
- Defines the cross-over point between
satisfaction and dissatisfaction
provides incentive
Generally speaking, people with goals outperform those without goals
What are some benefits of goals?
As goals increase in difficulty, performance increases in a linear fashion. It energizes Behavior, increases Effort, makes a Person Works Harder.
- Increases Persistence,
Person Works Longer
Specific goals, directs Behavior ,increases attention, and people works with focus.
- Increases Planning
Person works smarter
What are some benefits of goals?
As goals increase in difficulty, performance increases in a linear fashion. It energizes Behavior, increases Effort, makes a Person Works Harder.
- Increases Persistence,
Person Works Longer
Specific goals, directs Behavior ,increases attention, and people works with focus.
- Increases Planning
Person works smarter
Why is feedback important
(1) Feedback defines performance
Above-standard
At-standard
Below-standard
Therefore, instructive to future goal setting efforts
(2) Feedback acts as a reinforcer (or punisher)
Problems with Long-Term Goals (LTGs)
- With LTGs, there is a prolonged period of time in which performance goes unreinforced. Therefore, goal commitment can be expected to decrease.
- LTGs don’t provide/generate immediate performance feedback.
- Therefore,
performer may benefit
by translating a long-term goal
into a series of short-term goals. - This solution is especially
necessary if the long-term goal
is a relatively uninteresting task to
perform.
Self-Efficacy
One’s judgment of how well (or poorly) one will cope with a situation, given the skills one possesses and the circumstances one faces.
Respond to changes with anxiety if low self-efficacy
If high, we’ll be able to overcome the challenge
What are the ‘four fundamental motivational tasks’ that the self attempts to pursue?
(1) defining or creating the self (self-concept)
- we wonder about who we are, how others see us, how similar and how different we are from others, and whether we can become the person we want to be
(2) relating the self to society (identity)
- how we want to relate to others, what place we wish to occupy in the social world, and what societal roles are (and are not) available to us.
(3) discovering and developing the self’s potential (agency)
- explore what does and does not interest us, we internalize the values of those we respect, we strive to create meaning, we seek to discover and develop our talents, and we devote our time to developing some skills and relationships rather than others.
(4) managing or regulating the self (self-regulation).
- reflect on our capacities, monitor how well we are accomplishing our goals, and make the self-related adjustments that are needed to achieve enhanced self-functioning.
What is the difference between learned helplessness and reactance?
Helplessness: The psychological state that results when an individual expects that
life’s outcomes are uncontrollable.
Reactiveness: The psychological and behavioral attempt at reestablishing (“reacting” against) an eliminated or threatened freedom
- Our own illusion of control (reactiveness)
- if we feel we have no control, we’ll respond with helplessness.
What is the difference between a pessimistic and an optimistic explanatory style?
- Optimistic
Tendency to explain bad events with attributions that are unstable and controllable
Related to the self-serving bias of an illusion of control which contributes to enhancing self-esteem and promoting an optimistic view of the future
You have some ability to change some things (volatile): lost a game because I didn’t have a good strategy
- Take all credit and never take blame -
- slightly delusional -
- Pessimistic
Tendency to explain bad events with attributions that are stable and uncontrollable
Associated with academic failure, social distress, impaired job performance, physicals illness and depression
They are not changeable: I lost the game because I’m too short and I’ll never be any good.
What is the leadership motive pattern?
consists of a threefold pattern of needs:
(1) high need for power
(2) low need for intimacy/affiliation
(3) high inhibition
The leadership motive pattern features individuals who desire to exercise influence, are not concerned with being liked, and are well controlled or self-disciplined. For instance, the stereotypical military commander.
What is another term for modeling?
vicarious experience
mastery modeling
The opposite of efficacy?
Doubt. For the driver who doubts his or her capacity to cope, then surprises, setbacks, and difficulties will create anxiety, confusion, negative thinking, and aversive physiological arousal and bodily tension.
What is the difference between entity theorists and incremental theorists?
Incremental - Challenging tasks require high effort.
- Effort is a tool, the means by which we take advantage of our skills and abilities
Understand value of effort
Respond to negative feedback by working harder
They don’t give up, they put in more work to get better.
Entity - High effort signals
LOW ability.
- Effort is inverse to ability
High effort will not be effective on difficult tasks. On difficult tasks adopt maladaptive motivational patterns
Withholding effort
Self handicapping (to save self image)
Failure to appreciate value of effort
Respond to negative feedback by assuming it is due to low ability and withdraw effort
Maladaptive behavior
When they hit a running block they just stop
incremental theorists
People who believe they (and others) are endowed with malleable, changing qualities. The thinking is “the more you try and the more you learn, the better you get” in that all people can become smarter and more motivated, at least in proportion to their effort.
What part of the self relates to society?
In the quest to relate the self to society, we contemplate how we want to relate to others, what place we wish to occupy in the social world, and what societal roles are (and are not) available to us.
shows how identity energizes and directs behavior.
What part of the self is related to developing the potential of the self?
explore what does and does not interest us, we internalize the values of those we respect, we strive to create meaning, we seek to discover and develop our talents, and we devote our time to developing some skills and relationships rather than others.
one that reflects agency. Agency means that an agent (the self) has the power and intention to act. It reveals the motivation inherent within the self.
What motivates somebody with high need for power?
Dominance
Reputation
Status
Position
High-power-need individuals seek to become (and stay) leaders, and they interact with others with a forceful, take-charge style. When asked to recall the peak experiences in their lives, individuals high in the need for power report life events associated with strong positive emotions that occurred as a result of their impact on others, such as being elected to a leadership position or receiving applause from an audience.
In the dynamics of action model, what term represents inhibition?
- Inhibition
Causes a rise in avoidance tendencies and occurs by confronting environmental stimuli associated with past punishment (i.e., anything that cultivates an increased fear of failure). Inhibition is the same as (Taf).
According to the dynamics of action model, why does achievement behavior eventually end?
It shows that achievement behavior is self-limited; at a certain point in time it is going to end and the individual will move onto the next behavior
What is the difference between differentiation and integration?
- Integration
Synthesizes the emerging complexity into a coherent whole, thereby preserving a sense of single, cohesive self.
An organizational process that brings differentiated the selfs together. - Differentiation
Expands and elaborates the self into an ever increasing complexity.
A relatively general self becomes specialized into several life domains
Minimal differentiation manifests itself in simplicity in which the person has only a unidimensional understanding of a particular domain of knowledge; rich differentiation manifests itself in understanding fine discriminations and unique aspects of a particular life domain (scuss vs. my knowledge in motivation)
What are Self-schemas?
Cognitive generalizations about the self that are domain specific and are learned from past experiences
Being shy is both domain specific (relationships with others) and learned from past experiences (during group discussions, field trips, lunchroom conversations). Being shy does not represent the self-concept, but it does represent the self in one particular domain—one’s relationships with others.
SELF-CONCEPT
Individuals’ mental representations of themselves.
• During the group discussion, I felt uncomfortable and self-conscious. • On the school field trip to the zoo, I did not talk very much.
• At lunch, I avoided sitting with others.
To construct a self-concept, people attend to the feedback they receive in their day-to-day affairs that reveals their personal attributes, characteristics, and preferences.
What are sources of self-efficacy?
(1) one’s personal history in trying to execute that particular behavior
- stems from her personal history of trying to enact that course of action in the past
(2) observations of similar others who also try to execute that behavior
- Vicarious experience (modeling) involves observing a model enact the same course of action the performer is about to enact (e.g., “You go first, I’ll watch”).
(3) verbal persuasions (pep talks) from others
- Pep talks shift a performer’s attention from sources of inefficacy to sources of efficacy. But verbal per- suasion goes only so far if it is contradicted by direct experience.
(4) physiological states such as a racing heart versus a calm one.
- Fatigue, pain, muscle tension, mental confusion, and trembling hands are physiological signals that the demands of the task currently exceed the performer’s capacity to cope with those demands
In the Self-Action outcome model, where does a person’s efficacy expectations fit in?
Person» Behavior» Outcome
Efficacy Expectation would come in-between Person and Behavior, which would help motivate the behavior.
“Can I do it?”
Expectation of being able to enact the behaviors one needs in order to cope effectively with the situation at hand.
•*What is the cognitive foundation underlying personal empowerment?
Self-efficacy and engagement (p.241)
What is the difference between Ms and Maf?
The strength of a person’s need for achievement (Ms, motive to succeed)
The tendency to avoid failure motivates the individual to defend against the loss of self-esteem, the loss of social respect, and the fear of embarrassment
discordant social feedback
Self-discordant goals reflect and express nonintegrated action that emanates out of controlling internal and external pressures.
What is contingency? (when we talk about behavior)
refers to the objective relationship between a person’s behavior and the environment’s outcomes.
exists on a continuum that ranges from outcomes that occur on a random, non-contingent basis (i.e., uncontrollable outcomes) to outcomes that occur in perfect synchronization with a person’s voluntary behavior (i.e., controllable outcomes). That is, how contingent any one environment is can be scored on a continuum that ranges from 0 (uncontrollable outcomes) to 1 (controllable outcomes).
Two pillars of hope
- +Agentic Thinking+
Performer’s perceived capacity to accomplish the goals
“I can do this.” (self-efficacy)
- +Pathways Thinking+
Performer’s belief that he/she can generate multiple viable routes to desired goals
“I will find a way to get this done.” (mastery motivation)
Comparing normal controls in depressed patients, who has a more realistic illusion of control?
A person with Hopelessness will have a more realistic illusion of control, while someone with reactance will have unrealistic illusions.
The depressed individuals accurately judged that they had no control in this condition. The light came on in a random way, and they knew it. The non-depressed individuals were the ones who misperceived how much control they had—they overestimated their perceived control.
What leads to pathway thinking?
Multiple pathways are important because environmental obstacles (opponent’s strategy, competitor’s products) often close off one pathway. Closing a pathway to a goal does not diminish hope if the performer has a number of alternative pathways to the goal. All goals have obstacles to their eventual attainment, so hope follows from knowing that one has more pathways to a goal than the environment has obstacles to block it.
What is the role of parental influence on the development of social needs?
social needs are not set at an early age and, instead, emerge and change over time.
High need for achievement > parents with high standards.
High needs for affiliation >parents who used praise as a socialization technique.
High needs for power >
Parents who were permissive about sex and aggression.
What characteristics do successful U.S. presidents share in common?
The leadership motive pattern of high power, low affiliation, and high inhibition
What is the importance of corrective motivation?
It is a dynamic process of going back and forth between the two points listed above—act to achieve the ideal state but also be ready to change and revise an ineffective plan.
it give us the flexibility to either work from our present state to ideal state, or just say fuck it, it’s not worth my time
it is also act as an emotional appraisal
When people progress toward their ideal states at rates equal to their expectations, they feel little emotion, slower-than-expected - produces negative emotions, faster-than-expected - produces positive emotions such as enthusiasm, hope, excitement, and joy.
What is corrective motivation?
activates a decision-making process in which the individual considers many different possible ways for reducing the present-ideal incongruity: change the plan, change behavior (increase effort), or withdraw from the plan altogether.
Differences between people who adopt mastery goal and performance goal ?
Mastery goals: develop one’s competence, make progress, •Overcome difficulties with effort and persistence.
Performance goal: • Prove one’s competence, Display high ability, Outperform others, Succeed with little apparent, effort.
Ms and maf relationship in achieving related behavior?
•Ms: Motive to Success. Maf : Motive to Avoid Failure
- Latency to begin an achievement task depends on motive strength (Ms vs. Maf)
- Persistence on an achievement task depends on motive strength (Ms vs. Maf)
- Switching to a non achievement task occurs with rising consumption.
If Ps = 0.75, what does Is = ?
0.25 (always think -1):
.75-1= .25
What is ‘crisis self-verification’?
When self-concept certainty is not high the crisis self-verification happens. It is a Conflict between an uncertain self-schema and discordant feedback instigates a “crisis self-verification”
Why does the power oriented individual seek recognition in small groups ?
It is satisfies their need for Leadership; seek recognition in groups, make themselves visible within a group. Take risks in achieving public visibility. Relationships embrace influence rather than intimacy.
An incremental theories usually adopts what type of goals?
Mastery goals
What satisfies the need for entrepreneurship?
Entrepreneurship; appeals to high-needs achievers because
•Requires taking risk
•Assuming responsibility for personal success and failures
•Provides concrete, rapid performance feedback
•High achievers prefer occupations that offer challenge, independent work, personal responsibility and rapid performance feedback.
Whats the motivational force to move from present self to the ideal self?
Self-schemas generate motivation to move the present self toward a desired future self
What do we call a collection of domain specific self schemas?
As we age and mature, we get exposed to more social structures, we get into more social domains
What is the root of the need for affiliation? (or: affiliation derives from ______)
Need for affiliation rooted in a fear of interpersonal rejection, fear of loneliness.
In a … learned helplessness study which group of animals learned how to escape the shock on the second phase of the study?
The dogs in both the escapable shock (button) and no shock (control) groups quickly learned how to escape the shock in the shuttle box.
What’s the metacognitive monitoring of one`s goals striving and planning within the overall goal setting process called?
Self-regulation involves the person’s metacognitive monitoring of how his or her goal-setting progress is going.
Whats a strong determinant of the efficacy expectations?
Whats a strong determinant of the efficacy expectations?
Expectation of being able to enact the behaviors one needs in order to cope effectively with the situation at hand.
- What is agency?
* What does agency derive from?
Self as action and development from within, as innate processes and motivations. Human beings possess a core self, one energized by innate motivation and directed by the inherent developmental processes of
differentiation and integration. Not all self-structures are equally authentic; while some reflect the core self, others reflect and reproduce the society.
What is self concept certainty?
Is an individual`s confidence their self-schema is valid and true
How does somebody the with optimistic explanatory style explain thing when they go bad?
Tendency to explain bad events with attributions that are unstable and controllable
•What are those four different motivational struggles of the self? (already asked this q in another way)
- Defining or creating the self
- Relating the self to society
- Discovering and developing personal potential
- Managing or regulating the self
Whats learned helplessness?
The psychological state that results when an individual expects that life’s outcomes are uncontrollable
What’s the difference between efficacy expectation and the outcome expectation?
Efficacy expectation happens before the action. Outcomes expectations happens after the action and before the control (end).
Why do long term goals fail?
With LTGs, there is a prolonged period of time in which performance goes unreinforced. Therefore, goal commitment can be expected to decrease.
LTGs don’t provide/generate immediate performance feedback.
When moving from present to ideal state what`s the motivational force?
Incongruity between Present and Ideal states
What’s the purpose of implementation intentions?
A specific goal-directed action, initiated at an anticipated future outcomes.
Set a goal. 2. Planning how to attain the goal.
Whats self concept?
Ø An individuals’ mental representation of themselves
Ø Set of beliefs an individual uses to conceptualize his or her self.
Ø A collection of domain specific self-schemas
Difference between self concordant goal and self discordant goal?
Self concordant goals are reflect the self and they are much better. The self discordant goals don`t reflect the self.
Whats the essential motivational problem with long term goals?
With LTGs, there is a prolonged period of time in which performance goes unreinforced. Therefore, goal commitment can be expected to decrease.
LTGs don’t provide/generate immediate performance feedback.
How is the master orientated person interpret failure ?
It is part of learning and they don`t get anxious about mistakes.
What happens when you select choice A but the you wish you picked a choice B?
- We frequently choose between alternatives
- Following a difficult choice, people may experience dissonance or post-decision regret
- Dissonance is resolved by appreciating the chosen alternative.
Whats the importance of corrective motivation and whats corrective motivation ?
The TOTE unit. If we get progress and accomplish goals then its all cool. If some things are not working then we operate again. It`s called corrective motivation. It is an ability to judge your progress and and change plans (and make new strategies if needed)
What make goals emotionally important and involving ?
Feedback
- What is a strong, resistant portrayal of the self, especially when we encounter failure?
- ^ Or: A ____ refers to a strong, persistent portrayal of the self, during encounters with failure.
Mastery motivation orientation
When receiving discordant social feedback, what variable determines whether a person will or will not experience a change in self-concept?
when high self concept certainty strongly supports stable self schemas discrepant feed back rarely changes a stable self schema, when there’s low self concept certainty , discrepant feedback can eventually begin self schema change
