EXAM 1 (Revised)

Question 1

What does motivation study?

Answer 1

What starts behavior

How is behavior sustained over time

Why is behavior directed toward some ends but away from others?

Why does behavior change its direction

Why does behavior stop

Why does it change in energy.

Question 2

What is motivation?

Answer 2

The processes that give behavior its energy and direction

Question 3

direction in motivation

Answer 3

behavior that is aimed towards achieving a particular purpose or goal.

Question 4

Energy in motivation

Answer 4

behavior that is relatively strong and persistent.

Question 5

needs

Answer 5

The conditions within an individual that are both essential and necessary for the maintenance of life, nurturance of growth and well being.

Needs generate wants and desires
Needs can be physical or psychological

Question 6

Emotions

Answer 6

Emotions are short-lived subjective. They orchestrate and organize four different aspects of experience:

• Feelings; subjective verbal descriptions of emotional experience
• Physiological preparedness; how our bodies physically mobilizes itself to meet situational demands
• Expression; how we communicate our emotions publicly to others
• Emotions allow us to anticipate and to react adaptively to important events in our lives.

Question 7

What does the phrase grand theory refer to?

Answer 7

an all-encompassing theory that seeks to explain the full range of motivated action-why we eat, drink, work, play, compete, fear certain things, read, fall in love…….. why we do shit.

Question 8

Drive

Answer 8

The psychological discomfort resulting from a biological deficit.

Drive theory view that behavior was motivated to the extent that it served the needs of the organism and restored a biological homeostasis.

The function of behavior is to service bodily needs
The two most widely accepted models of Drive were proposed by Freud and Hull

Drives emerge from bodily needs
Drive energizes behavior
Drive reduction is reinforced and produces learning.

Question 9

What were all of the grand theories of motivation?

Answer 9

Drive: behavior was motivated to the extent that it served the needs of the organism and restored a biological homeostasis.
(Frued, Hull)

Will: The ancient philosophers understood motivation within the two themes (rational: will; primitive and impulsive: bodily desires)
(Aristotle; Descartes)

Instinct: Physiological analysis of motivation by focusing on the mechanistic. The appeal of instinct doctrine was its ability to explain unlearned behavior that had energy and purpose
(Darwin was the foundation, William James: Pioneered instinct)
(i.e., goal-directed biological impulses).

It started with will (Aristotle; Descartes) then moved to Instinct and finished with Drive.

Question 10

A SUMMARY OF FREUD’S DRIVE THEORY

Answer 10

Source (A bodily deficit occurs) > Impetus (bio deficit grows & emerges into consciousness as a psychological discomfort, which is anxiety)&raquo_space; Object (to reduce anxiety & satisfy deficit, the person searches out & consumes a need satisfying environmental object (food) > Aim (If the environmental object successfully satisfies the bodily deficit, satisfaction occurs & quiets anxiety, at least for a period of time)

Question 11

Hull Drive theory (what was different?)

What was so outstanding about Hull’s theory? What made it revolutionary?

Answer 11

Main difference from Freud was Hulls theory
believed Motivation could be predicted before it occurred. With both the instinct and the will, it was impossible to predict in an a deductive fashion when and whether or not a person would be motivated.

Question 12

What was wrong with the grand theories?

Answer 12

Will: Turned out to be a dead end that explained very little about motivation, as it actually raised more questions than it answered.

Instinct: dead end as well, as it became clear that “naming is not explaining.”

Drive: Limited in scope, and with its rejection grand theories in general. Several additional grand motivational principles emerged with some success (incentive and arousal).

Question 13

What directly led to the grand theory of instinct - what single scientific discovery led to this?

Answer 13

Darwinism (evolution)

Question 14

What causes hunger? (i.e: what part controls initiation, what hormone stimulate feeding behavior?)

Answer 14

The bodily organ that monitors level of blood glucose is the liver, and when blood glucose is low, the liver sends an excitatory signal to the lateral hypothalamus (LH), the brain center responsible for generating the psychological experience of hunger (Via the hormone Gherelin). Stimulation of the LH is important, because its stimulation will lead animals to overeat and, if stimulation is continued, to obesity.

(Need, Drive)

Question 15

What inhibits feeding behavior (what brain structure, hormones, terminology) inhibit feeding behavior?

Answer 15

The brain structure involved is the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH). Acts as the brain’s satiety center—that is, the VMH is short-term appetite’s negative feedback system. VMH gets stimulated by the liver’s detection of high Cellular glucose. Insulin (hormone) is needed to increase permeability of glucose to send a signal to VMH which signals the production of Leptin.

(Homeostasis, Negative feedback)

Question 16

Medial forebrain bundle

Answer 16

large collection of pathway-like fibers that connect the hypothalamus to other limbic structures. The “pleasure center” of the brain.

Approach-Oriented

Question 17

Reticular Formation

Answer 17

plays a key role in arousal and in the process of awakening the brain’s motivational and emotional concerns. (mouse)

Question 18

Dopamine release and incentives

Answer 18

Incentives (stimuli that foreshadow the imminent delivery of rewards) triggers dopamine release.

Stimuli that foreshadow the imminent delivery of rewards — pleasurable thought.

Example - Kush, smelling Kush, or just thinking about Kush.

Question 19

What hormone regulates the tend and befriend response?

Answer 19

Oxytocin

Question 20

What is the master gland?

Answer 20

Pituitary Gland

Question 21

What controls the master gland?

Answer 21

Hypothalamus

Question 22

What are the different types of needs?

Answer 22

Physiological, Psychological, Implicit (social)

Question 23

What is homeostasis?

Answer 23

The bodies tendency to maintain internal state. Homeostasis is the bodies ability to return to its’ basal state

Question 24

What mechanism do we use to maintain homeostasis?

Answer 24

Negative feedback

Question 25

Intra‑organismic mechanisms

Answer 25

All of the biological regulatory systems within a person that act in concert to maintain and terminate physiological needs that underlie drive

Question 26

Extra‑organismic mechanisms

Answer 26

All of the environmental influences that play a part in activating, maintaining and terminating psychological drive

Question 27

What are some examples of extra organismic mechanisms?

Answer 27

a cold breeze.

Question 28

The four processes capable of giving behavior strength and purpose

Answer 28

1. Needs - 2. Cognition - 3. Emotions - 4. External Events

Question 29

Emotions

Answer 29

Emotions are short-lived subjective. They orchestrate and organize four different aspects of experience:

• Feelings; subjective verbal descriptions of emotional experience
• Physiological preparedness; how our bodies physically mobilizes itself to meet situational demands
• Expression; how we communicate our emotions publicly to others
• Emotions allow us to anticipate and to react adaptively to important events in our lives.

Question 30

What parts of the brain are involved in approach & avoidance behavior?*

Answer 30

Hypothalamus

Medial forebrain bundle

Orbitofrontal cortex

Septal area

Nucleus Accumbens

Anterior cingulate cortex

Cerebral cortex
(Frontal lobes)

Left prefrontal cerebral cortex

Medial prefrontal cerebral cortex

Question 31

What parts of the brain are involved in avoidance behavior?*

Answer 31

Right prefrontal cerebral cortex

Hippocampus

Amygdala (meaning “almond-shaped”)

Question 32

Hypothalamus

Answer 32

Part of the brain that regulates a range of important biological functions. Including eating, drinking, and mat- ing (via the motivations for hunger, satiety, thirst, and sex) (1%)

Approach-Oriented

Question 33

Medial forebrain bundle

Answer 33

large collection of pathway-like fibers that connect the hypothalamus to other limbic structures. The “pleasure center” of the brain.

Approach-Oriented

Question 34

Orbitofrontal cortex

Answer 34

processes such incentive-related information that helps people make choices between options, such as which product among many to buy or whether to drink orange juice or water.

Approach-Oriented

Question 35

Amygdala (meaning “almond-shaped”)

Answer 35

detects and responds to threatening and emotionally significant events, though each of its differ- ent nuclei serves a different function. Stimulation of one part of the amygdala generates emotional anger, while stimulation of another part generates emotional fear and defensive behavior.

Avoidance-Oriented

Question 36

Septal area

Answer 36

Pleasure center associated with sociability, sexuality

Approach-Oriented

Question 37

Nucleus Accumbens

Answer 37

plays a critical role in the experience of pleasure from naturally occurring reinforcers (good food, social acceptance) and drugs that contribute to addictions. It generates a “liking” reaction to different incoming sensations, such as food. (pleasure and reward center)

Approach-Oriented

Question 38

Anterior cingulate cortex

Answer 38

involved in the control of day-to-day mood, volition, and making choices. Decreased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex is associated with felt sadness and depression. The anterior cingulate cortex is important to volition (will) and the mental activity underlying the act of making a choice.

Approach-Oriented

Question 39

Cerebral cortex

Frontal lobes

Answer 39

Making plans, setting goals, formulating intentions

Approach-Oriented

Question 40

Left prefrontal cerebral cortex

Answer 40

Approach motivational and emotional tendencies

Approach-Oriented

Question 41

Medial prefrontal cerebral cortex

Answer 41

Learning response-outcome contingencies that underlie perceived control beliefs and mastery motivation

Approach-Oriented

Question 42

Hippocampus

Answer 42

Behavior inhibition system during unexpected events

Avoidance-Oriented

Question 43

Right prefrontal cerebral cortex

Answer 43

Withdraw motivational and emotional tendencies

Avoidance-Oriented

Question 44

What does dopamine release do?

Answer 44

Leads to emotional positivity, which can enhance functioning and creativity

Question 45

Dopamine Release and Reward

Answer 45

Dopamine release teaches us which events in the environments are rewarding.

To acquire—and continue to maintain—incentive motivational properties, then dopamine release needs to occur

Question 46

Dopamine and Motivated Action

Answer 46

Dopamine release activates voluntary goal-directed approach responses.

affects two brain events activation of voluntary goal-directed approach responses. The dopamine pathway includes an interface with the body’s muscular/motor system via the nucleus accumbens, which is the brain structure involved in the release of locomotion involved in goal-directed behavior . Thus, stimulation of the dopamine pathway increases the likelihood of approach behavior —partly because good feelings create approach motivation but also partly because activation of the motor system releases goal-directed approach behavior.

Question 47

What is the difference between the psychological and social needs?

Answer 47

Psychological are inherent within the strivings of human nature and healthy development, where social are internalized or learned from our emotional and socialization histories.

Question 48

What are the 3 different negative feedback mechanisms that signal the end of drinking?

Answer 48

When taken as a whole, multiple negative feedback systems for thirst satiety exist—in the mouth, stomach, and cells.

Question 49

Whats the most important environmental factor in determining how much we drink?

Answer 49

The most important environmental influence for drinking is taste The incentive values for four tastes are: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter,

Using tasteless (pure) water as a baseline (no pleasantness), any taste is slightly pleasant at a very low intensity (even bitter to a small extent). At more substantial rate sweet is preferred and sour and bitter is not.

Question 50

Ice Cream study

Answer 50

People had more licks of ice cream in social settings than alone.

Question 51

Ice Cream study

Answer 51

People had more licks of ice cream in social settings than alone.

Additionally, if theres more variety, men and females had more licks of ice cream.

only difference was when men had more variety in a social setting.

Question 52

Testosterone

Answer 52

underlies the mating effort—the investment of time and energy into same-sex competition and mate-seeking behavior.

For instance, high testosterone levels help Wall Street stockbrokers make more money (compete better) during the day’s trading.

High associated with cheating, while low associated with commitment and nurturing (single vs yolo).

Question 53

Describe male sexual motivation

Answer 53

• Describe male sexual motivation

Question 54

Hypovolemic Thirst

Answer 54

much simpler - what happens when we lose volume I.e. give blood, cut self, bleeding internally - causes a decrease in the volume of fluids in the extracellular space

Question 55

Osmotic Thirst

Answer 55

comes when we have fluid loss in extracellular component - causes fluids of the intracellular component to rush out and dilute the salts of the extracellular component, causing those cells to shrink

Question 56

What are the two different models of hunger?

Answer 56

Glucostatic & Limbostatic

Question 57

Glucostatic Theory

Answer 57

Argues that blood-sugar levels are critical to hunger—when blood glucose drops, people feel hungry and want to eat

According to the glucostatic hypothesis, appetite rises and falls in response to changes in plasma glucose

Question 58

Limbostatic Theory

Answer 58

when the mass of fat stored drops below its homeostatic balance, adipose tissue secretes hormones (e.g., ghrelin) into the bloodstream to promote weight gain motivation that increases food intake

Alternatively, when the mass of fat stored increases above its homeostatic balance, adipose tissue secretes hormones (e.g., leptin) into the bloodstream to reduce food intake and promote weight loss motivation

Question 59

Male sexual motivation

Answer 59

The amount of testosterone and estrogen
that is produced in the adrenal gland, which is controlled by the hypothalamus. Men have higher testosterone so they fuck everything.

Question 60

Male sexual motivation

Answer 60

The amount of testosterone and estrogen
that is produced in the adrenal gland, which is controlled by the hypothalamus. Men have higher testosterone so they fuck everything. (titty milk) #lumpyshit #sweet cashew

Question 61

VTA

Answer 61

Regulator of dopamine output to parts of the brain, based off what a person expects and actually receives, in regards to rewards from a particular course of action.

Question 62

How does male sexual motivation typically differ from theories of female sexual motivation?

Answer 62

males compete & females choose - success as an organism is dependent on you passing your genes onto another generation - biological standpoint: for males, success = reproduction for male; to pass on their genes - females - also need to pass genes on, but have added burden of also having to raise those offspring and bring them to sexual maturity, she invests so much into each of them; thus fights harder to keep them alive.

Question 63

Whats a sexual script?

Answer 63

mental step-by-step representation of an individuals impression of what a typical sexual encounter would be like - begins in puberty - seems to be stronger in young men than young women - maturational (hopefully) as we gain experience, our sexual scripts will change - major part = allowing an individual to personalize their sexual orientation.

Question 64

What are facial metrics and what particular types do men find attractive in women and what types do women find attractive in men?

Answer 64

Basically it’s a universal set of characteristics that we all find attractive

I.e. eyebrows, chin etc… - divided facial characteristics into 3 categories:

1. Neonatal (men look for large eyes & a small nose — women look for a strong chin)
2. Sexually mature (I.e. men look for high cheek bones — women look for a wide smile)
3. Expressive (I.e. a wide smile)

Question 65

forms of extrinsic motivation?

Answer 65

Incentives
Consequences
Rewards

Question 66

What makes an effective verbal reward?

Answer 66

Spontaneity

Question 67

What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?

Answer 67

Positive Reinforcer - any environmental stimulus that, when presented, increases the future probability of the desired behavior.

Negative Reinforcer - any environmental stimulus that, when removed, increases the future probability of the desired behavior

Punisher - any environmental stimulus that, when presented, decreases the future probability of the undesired behavior

Question 68

What is the difference between positive & negative reinforcement?

Answer 68

Positive Reinforcer - any environmental stimulus that, when presented, increases the future probability of the desired behavior.

Negative Reinforcer - any environmental stimulus that, when removed, increases the future probability of the desired behavior

Question 69

What produces intrinsic motivation?

Answer 69

Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness ———> Psychological Need Satisfaction ———> Intrinsic Motivation

Question 70

What are some of the negative effects of extrinsic motivators?

Answer 70

Benefits of intrinsic motivation - they show a greater degree of persistence (compared to extrinsic motivation) - also brings about creativity (intrinsically motivated people are more creative) - also have a higher conceptual understanding/high-quality learning (intrinsics like to understand the process, rather than memorize facts) - are more optimally functioning and have better well-being (tend to be more well off generally, greater vitality, lower levels of anxiety).

Question 71

Do rewards have a purpose/serve a function? When are rewards useful?

Answer 71

A extrinsic reward enlivens positive emotion and facilitates reward-directed behavior because

it signals the opportunity for a personal gain. Rewards work. Rewards increase desired behavior when they signal in the recipient an unexpected and imminent personal gain. As

rewards become routinely predictable however, they lose their capacity to trigger dopamine release and hence lose their capacity to energize reward-directed behavior.

Question 72

What’re the hidden costs of rewards?

Answer 72

The imposition of an extrinsic reward undermines future intrinsic motivation. The reward’s adverse effect on intrinsic motivation is the hidden cost.

Question 73

What is the cognitive evaluation theory?

Answer 73

asserts that all external events have both a controlling aspect and an informational aspect. This theory presumes that people have psychological needs for autonomy and competence. It is the controlling aspect of an external event that affects the person’s need for autonomy whereas it is the informational aspect that affects the person’s need for competence.

Question 74

What do we call the tyranny of should’s?

Answer 74

• When a person is neurotic, their self is split between an idealized self and a real self. As a result, neurotic individuals feel that they somehow do not live up to the ideal self. They feel that there is a flaw somewhere in comparison to what they “should” be. The real self then degenerates into a “despised self”, and the neurotic person assumes that this is the “true” self. Thus, the neurotic is like a clock’s pendulum oscillating between “perfection” and a manifestation of self-hate. This phenomenon is known as the “Tyranny of the Should’s” and the neurotic’s hopeless”search for glory”. These ingrained traits of the psyche forever prevent an individual’s potential from being actualized unless the cycle of neurosis is somehow broken, through treatment or life lessons.

Question 75

How can a rational explanation work as a motivational influence?

Answer 75

Providing rationale provides in depth reason why you should do that task - as that rationale becomes clearer, a task that had no intrinsic motivation initially, can start to become internalized and integrated - giving this rationale allows you to provide a momentary spark that provides reason to do task

Question 76

What are the 2 basic principles of the organismic approach to motivation?

Answer 76

Self-determination theory

organismic model

Question 77

Self-determination theory

Answer 77

people are inherently active & the person-environment dialectic - we live in an ever changing environment that provides opportunities to fulfill needs, meet a challenge, maximize growth - but there are obstacles to reaching that - as the environment changes, its going to change us and also we are changing it - a never ending feedback loop between person and environment

Question 78

organismic model

Answer 78

based on the ever-changing environment - based on what the environment provides and how we react - thought and interaction

Question 79

Person-environment dialectic

Answer 79

person brings certain things to the table - use all of those to interact with the environment - a proactive person seeks out challenges in the environment - whether we’re successful in impacting the environment depends on the opportunities that the environment provides

Question 80

What are the psychological needs?

Answer 80

Psychological needs - trying to seek new challenges, explore and master new tasks - means we use to grow, enhance development - growth needs - help us grow as an individual

Question 81

3 Psychological Needs

Answer 81

Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness

Question 82

Which psychological need is effected by the perceived locus of causality?

Answer 82

Autonomy

Question 83

Is choice good or bad? Or is there some choice that is good and some choice that is bad?

Answer 83

Not all choices promote autonomy - a lot of things masquerade choice but don’t truly give choice - I.e. paper on extrinsic vs intrinsic vs paper on motivation, get a greater sense of autonomy from the ladder
When you give someone true choice, it allows them to reflect their values and interests which leads to increased sense of autonomy

Question 84

Autonomy & PLOC

Answer 84

based on how free we feel we are - we want to decide for ourself what it is we do - we don’t want to be told what we have to do - things that lead to increased sense of autonomy: perceived locus of causality (we want the reason we do something to come from within us, we want to be the origin of our behavior rather than a pawn) (origins vs pawns) - We want to freely accept the behavior (Volition) - all of autonomy is based on something we perceive, we don’t need, just have to think we do

Question 85

What are the subjective experiences of autonomy?

Answer 85

1. An internal perceived locus of causality - 2. Volition - 3. Perceived choice

Question 86

Why is failure tolerance important?

Answer 86

Structure: gives us a framework to plan our activities -

gives you clearly defined goal in sight and strategies on how to get there -

strategies bridges into failure tolerance - treat failure as a learning opportunity

Question 87

What leads to flow?

Answer 87

Must have the optimal balance between challenge and skill - when you get that optimal challenge for your skill set, you theoretically achieve flow

(Scale: boredom — optimal challenge — anxiety)

Question 88

What is required for an environmental challenge to produce the psychological experience/sense of being challenged?

Answer 88

Feedback. You don’t know that you’re being challenged until you get some feedback. It could be Internal or External

(could be as simple as: this test was a lot harder than I thought it would be - or as simple as: weight training - picking up the weight and thinking wow, that is heavier than I thought it would be)

Question 89

What is competence?

Answer 89

sense of how capable you are with interacting with your environment; you have the skills it takes to complete this task

Question 90

What is the difference between a communal and an exchange relationship?

Answer 90

Has to do with Relatedness - need to be emotionally connected to others - want positive interactions with others - we want these relationships to go in both directions - communal: individuals have each others back regardless, help each other meet their needs & desires without looking for something in return - exchange: you are looking to get something out of it.

Question 91

When we study motivation, what’re the essential questions we have to answer about our behavior?

Answer 91

Why does behavior start?* - Why does behavior vary in its intensity?* - Once begun, why is behavior sustained over time? - Why is behavior directed toward some goals yet away from others? - Why does behavior change its direction? - Why does behavior stop?

Question 92

Which grand theory is deficiency based?

Answer 92

Drive

Question 93

Whats the theoretical term used to depict the psychological discomfort resulting from a persistent biological deficit?

Answer 93

Drive

Question 94

What is the difference between the two models of hunger in regards to feeding behavior?

Answer 94

(Glucostatic is the short-term hunger regulation ~ Lipostatic is the long-term metabolic needs)

Question 95

What is the difference between an incentive and a consequence?

Answer 95

Incentive - an environmental event that attracts or repels a person toward or away from initiating a particular course of action; incentives always precede behavior; the incentive value of an environment is learned through experience (learning process = conditioning).

Both incentives and consequences are external events that direct behavior, however, incentives always precede behavior and they attract or repel the initiation of behavior.

Consequences always follow behavior and increase or decrease the persistence of behavior.

Question 96

What is the difference between a set point and a settling point theory?

Answer 96

Set point - each individual has a biologically determined body weight that is set by genetics.

Settling point - body weight is culturally controlled; ideal body weight determined by the culture you live in I.e. some cultures = being overweight as a sign of affluence (America)

Question 97

What are the 3 psychological needs?

Answer 97

Competence, Relatedness, Autonomy

Of the 3 psychological needs, competence is the most maturational - as we continue to engage in something, we will continuously increase our level of competence

Question 98

What is the purpose of structure?

Answer 98

Structure provides clear expectations - provides timely performance feedback - provides optimal challenge - these are all signs of structure

Question 99

Competence

Answer 99

sense of how capable you are with interacting with your environment, you have the skills it takes to complete this task

Question 100

Relatedness

Answer 100

close emotional feeling with others, I.e. competition, some types of competition lead to a sense of relatedness - I.e. social drinker, relates to need for relatedness

Question 101

HPA (Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal Axis)

Answer 101

CRF (released from Hypothalamus; the releasing factor)—> gets into circulation —> goes to anterior pituitary —> ACTH —> adrenal gland —> release of cortisol —> functions through negative feedback to turn off ACTH

Question 102

HPA/HPG

Answer 102

do not need to know specific hormones, just know the particular pathways and what the end product does (I.e. cortisol = response to stress)

Question 103

Types of regulation

Answer 103

External regulation - recycle for 5 cents to get the 5 cents

Introjected - do it because you should / feel like you have to do it

Identified - there is a particular reason for it

Integrated regulation - do it because it expresses who you are and how you view yourself

Question 104

Which compartment is most important in terms of regulating thirst?

Answer 104

must get fluid into cells to relieve thirst - it is the intracellular compartment that drives thirst

Question 105

Serotonergic pathway

Answer 105

Dorsal Raphe - In the brain stem - the cell bodies that make the serotonin are found in the brain stem - from there, the cell bodies send their projections all over the brain - made only in the brain stem but they spread all over the brain.

Question 106

Dopaminergic pathway

Answer 106

3 of these pathways -

1st: Hypothalamic (entirely in the hypothalamus)
2nd: Nigrostriatal (goes from substantia nigra —> striatal - involved in memory, habit formation & fine motor control - involved in Parkinson’s
3rd: Mesocorticolimbic (projection) - cell bodies next to substantia nigra in mesocephalon —> VTA —> Nucleus Accumbens & prefrontal cortex (both at the same time) - This is the REWARD PATHWAY - (everything related to reward releases dopamine and goes to the nucleus accumbens)