Test 1 Flashcards
Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Applied research
Early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function (how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish)
Functionalism
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Behavior genetics
Historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential
Humanistic psychology
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
Biopsychosocial approach
The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
Levels of analysis
The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Cognitive neuroscience
The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Natural selection
A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
Counseling psychology
The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of the two.
Nature-nurture issue
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
Evolutionary psychology
The scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
Positive psychology
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Basic research
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
Most research psychologist today agree with (1) but not (2)
Behaviorism
A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Clinical psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
Community psychology
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Culture
A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy
Psychiatry
The science of behavior and mental processes
Psychology
A study method incorporating five steps: survey, question, read, and retrieve, review
SQ3R
The five steps of SQ3R
Survey Question Read Retrieve Review
Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Structuralism
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply re-reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
Testing effect
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
Critical thinking
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
(Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
Hindsight bias
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Intuition
A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Case study
Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Informed consent
In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Control group
The statistical index of the relationship between two things
From -1.00 to +1.00
Correlation coefficient
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
Correlation
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Naturalistic observation
In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Dependent variable
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
Placebo
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variable) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors
Experiment
All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Population
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Hypothesis
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the different groups
Random assignment
In an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect
Confounding variable
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Random sample
The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Debriefing
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
Operational definition
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug – evaluation studies
Double-blind procedure
In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Experimental group
In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Independent variable
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average
Regression towards the mean
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
Replication
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
Scatter plot
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self – reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Survey
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Theory
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Mean
The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Median
The most frequently occurring score or scores in a distribution
Mode
A symmetrical, bell – shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
Normal curve
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Range
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Standard deviation
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Statistical significance
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Action potential
A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
Myelin
A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
Agonist
Bundled axons that form the neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
Nerves
A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
Antagonist
The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
Nervous system
The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Axon
A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Neuron
The brain and spinal cord
Central nervous system
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
Neurotransmitters
When released by the sending neuron, ________ travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
Neurotransmitters
The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream
Endocrine
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Parasympathetic nervous system
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
Glial cells
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
Peripheral nervous system
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Internuerons
The endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, this gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
Pituitary gland
A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress
Adrenal glands
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee–jerk response
Reflex
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)
It’s sympathetic division ______; it’s parasympathetic division _____
Autonomic nervous system
Arouses; calms
(1) A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
(2) A resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
Refractory period
A neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Dendrites
A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
Reuptake
A neuron’s reaction of either firing or not firing
All or none response
Concerned with the links between biology and behavior. Include psychologists working in neuroscience, behavior genetics, and evolutionary psychology. These researchers may call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists
Biological perspective
Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure
Endorphins
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Hormones
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Motor (efferent) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
Sensory (afferent) neurons
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system
Somatic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy
Sympathetic nervous system
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap
Synapse
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Threshold
Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
Amygdala
Tissue destruction
This is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
Lesion
The “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
Cerebellum
Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Limbic system
A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans
These show brain function as well as structure
fMRI (functional MRI)
A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
Hippocampus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
Hypothalamus
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; this is responsible for automatic survival functions
Brainstem
And amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Medulla
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer–generated images of soft tissue
These scans show brain anatomy
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
Reticular formation
The brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Thalamus
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Association areas
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Occipital lobes
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Corpus callosum
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Frontal lobes
An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Motor cortex
The formation of new neurons
Neurogenesis
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center
Cerebral cortex
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
Parietal lobes
The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Plasticity
Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Somatosensory cortex
A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s 2 hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
Split brain
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Temporal lobes
Condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
Blindsight
Failing to notice changes in the environment
Change blindness
The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition
includes perception, thinking, memory, and language
Cognitive neuroscience
Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Consciousness
The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Dual processing
Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Inattentional blindness
The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions
Parallel processing
The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
Selective attention
The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
Alpha waves
According to Freud, the remembered storyline of a dream
Manifest content
The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
Delta waves
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer May lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
Narcolepsy
False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
Hallucinations
A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
Night terrors
According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
Latent content
The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle
Circadian rhythm
A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. They are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities and incongruities, and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it
Dream
Reoccurring problems and falling or staying asleep
Insomnia
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
Created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep
REM rebound
Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active
REM sleep
Periodic, natural loss of consciousness – as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Sleep
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessation of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
Sleep apnea
A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
(1) In developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
(2) In sensation and perception, the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Accommodation
In Piaget’s theory, The stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Formal operational stage
An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation
Attachment
The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
Imprinting
According to Erik Erickson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Basic trust
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
Maturation
In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Concrete operational stage
The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
Object permanence
An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
Critical period
In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
Preoperational stage
Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Assimilation
A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
Autism spectrum disorder
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognition
The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Conservation
In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view
Egocentrism
A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Schema
All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “who am I?”
Self-concept
In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
Sensorimotor Stage
The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about eight months of age
Stranger anxiety
People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states – – about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
Theory of mind
The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
Adolescence
The time from about age 18 to the mid-20s, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
Emerging adulthood
Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
Identity
In Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood
Intimacy
The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Puberty
The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “who am I?” that comes from our group memberships
Social identity
Neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
Alzheimer’s disease
A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Cross-sectional study
Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
Longitudinal study
The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
Menopause
Acquired disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer’s disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse
In older adults, neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia
Neurocognitive disorders
The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Social clock
The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
Absolute threshold
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Sensation
The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time
We experience this as a just noticeable difference (JND)
Difference threshold
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Sensory adaptation
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
Perceptual set
The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, that’s predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
Priming
The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
Psychophysics
Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
Bottom-up processing
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Perception
A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assume there is no single absolute threshold of and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
Signal detection theory
Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Subliminal
Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Top-down processing
Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sight, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
Transduction
The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount
Weber’s Law
