Test 1 Flashcards
Human Development
the multidisciplinary study of how people change and how they remain the same over time
recurring issues in human development
nature vs nurture, continuity vs discontinuity, universal vs context specific development, biopsychosocial framework, neuroscience
nature vs nurture
the degree to which genetic or hereditary influences (nature) and experimental or environmental influences (nurture) determine the kind of person you are
continuity vs discontinutiy
whether a particular developmental phenomenon represents a smooth progression throughout the lifespan (continuity) or a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity)
universal vs context specific development
whether there is just one path of development or several paths
biopsychosocial framework
a useful way to organize the biological, psychological, or sociocultural forces of human development
different parts of biopsychosocial framework
biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life cycle forces
biological forces
genetic and health related factors
psychological forces
all internal cognitive, emotional, perceptual, and personality factors
sociocultural forces
interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors
life cycle forces
differences in how the same event effects different people
neuroscience
the study of the brain and nervous system, especially in terms of brain-behavior relationships
theory
an organized set of ideas that is designed to explain development
Psychodynamic theories
theories by proposing that development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face at different ages
psychosocial theory
Erikson’s proposal that personality development is determined by the interaction of an internal maturational plan and external societal demands
epigenetic theory
in Erikson’s theory, the idea that each psychosocial strength has its own period of particular importance
behaviorsm
BF Skinner. Do consequences of behavior determine if behavior is repeated in the future?
reinforcement
a consequence that increases the future likelihood of the behavior that it follows
punishment
a consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows
Imitation or observational learning:
learning that occurs by watching how others behave
Self efficacy:
peoples beliefs about their own abilities and talents
Cognitive Developmental theory:
the thought process and construction of knowledge
Piaget’s theory
- sensorimotor stage
- preoperational
- concrete operational
- formal operational
sensorimotor
birth to 2 years. Knowledge based on senses and motor skills
preoperational
2 – 6 years. Symbols as language, only through their perspective
concrete operational
7 years to early adolescence. Understands and applies logical operations to experiences provided they are focused on here and now
formal operational
adolescence +. Thinks abstractly, deals with hypothetical situations, speculates about what may be possible.
information processing theory
proposes human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software
Vygotsky’s theory:
must consider child’s development against background or environment
Ecological theory:
based on the idea that human development is inseparable from the environmental contexts in which a person develops
Bronfenbrenner’s theory
- microsystem
- mesosystem
- exosystem
- macrosystem
microsystem
the people and objects in an individual’s immediate environment
mesosystem
provides connections across microsystem
exosystem
the social settings a person may not experience first hand but that still influence development
macrosystem
the cultures and subcultures in which the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded
competence
a person’s abilities
enviromental press
the demands put on an individual by the environment
lifespan perspective
human development is multiply determined and cannot be understood within the scope of a single framework
selective optimization with compensation model
the model in which three processes (selection, optimization, and compensation) form a system of behavioral action that generates and regulates development and aging
life course perspective
the ways in which various generations experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective historical contexts
systematic observation
watching people and carefully recording what they do or say
naturalistic observation
people are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life situation
structured obseravtions
the researcher creates a setting that is likely to elicit the behavior of interest
self reports
people’s answers to questions about the topic of interest
reliability
the extent to which a measure provides a consistent index of a characteristic
validity
the extent to which a measure actually assess what you think it assess
populations
broad groups od people that are of interest to researchers
sample
a subset of the population
correlational study
an investigation that looks at relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world
correlational coefficient
an expression of the strength and direction of a relation between two variables
experiment
a systemic way of manipulating the key factor or factors that the investigator thinks causes a particular behavior
independent variable
the variable being manipulated
dependent variable
the variable being observed
qualitative research
a method that involves gaining in-depth understanding of human behavior and what governs it
longitudinal study
a research design in which the same individuals are observed or tested repeatedly at different points in their lives
cross sectional study
a study in which developmental differences are identified by testing people of different ages
cohort effects
problems with cross sectional designs in which differences between age groups (cohorts) may result as easily from environmental events as from developmental processes
sequential design
a developmental research design based on cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
chromosomes
threadlike structures in the nuclei of cells that contain genetic material
autosomes
the first 22 pairs of chromosomes
sex chromosomes
the 23rd pair of chromosomes, which determines the sex of the child
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that composes one chromosome, making it the biochemical basis of heredity
genes
a group of compounds that provides a specific set of biochemical instructions
genotype
the complete set of genes that make up a person’s heredity
phenotype
physical, behavioral, and psychological features that result from the interactions between an individual’s genes and their environment
alleles
variations of genes
homozygous
alleles in a pair of chromosomes that are the same
heterozygous
alleles in a pair of chromosomes that are different
dominant
the allele who’s chemical instructions are followed
recessive
the allele who’s chemical instructions are ignored in the presence of a dominant allele
polygenetic inheritence
phenotypes are the result of the combined activity of many separate genes
monozygotic twins
the result of a single fertilized egg splitting to form two new individuals; also called identical twins
dizygotic twins
the result of two separate eggs fertilized by two sperm; also called fraternal twins
niche picking
the process of deliberately seeking environments that are compatible with one’s genetic makeup
non-shared environmental influences
forces within a family that make siblings different from one another
prenatal development
the many changes that turn a fertilized egg into a newborn human
zygote
a fertilized egg
germ disk
small cluster of cells near the center of the zygote that will eventually develop to form a baby
placenta
a structure thought which nutrients and wastes are exchanged between the pregnant woman and developing child
implantation
the zygote burrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with a woman’s blood vessels
embryo
the term given to zygote after it is completely implanted into the uterine wall
amnion
the inner sac in which the developing child rests
amnionic fluid
the fluid surrounding the fetus
period of the fetus
the longest period of prenatal development, extending from the 9th until the 38th week after conception
umbilical cord
the structure containing veins and arteries that connects the developing child to the placenta
age of viability
the age, typically 22-28 weeks after conception, at which a fetus can survive if born because most of its body systems function adequately
teratogen
an agent that causes abnormal prenatal development
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
a disorder affecting babies who’s mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while they were pregnant
ultrasound
a prenatal diagnostic technique that uses sound waves to generate an image of the fetus
amniocentesis
a prenatal diagnostic technique that uses a syringe to withdraw a sample of amniotic fluid through a pregnant woman’s abdomen
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS):
a prenatal diagnostic technique that involves taking a sample of tissue from the chorion
fetal medicine
a field of medicine concerned with treating prenatal problems before birth
hypoxia
a birth complication in which umbilical blood flow is disrupted and the infant does not receive adequate oxygen
preterm
premature, babies born before the 36th week
low birth weight
newborns who weigh less than 2500 grams (5.5 pounds)
very low birth weight
newborns who weigh less than 1500 grams (3.3 pounds)
extremely low birth weight
newborns who weigh less than 1000 grams (2.2 pounds)
infant mortality
the percentage of infants who die before their 1st birthday
in vitro fertilization
the process by which sperm and an egg are mixed in a petri dish to create a zygote, which is then placed in a woman’s uterus
eugenics
the effort to improve human species by letting only people whose characteristics are valued by society mate and pass along their genes
reflexes
unlearned responses triggered by specific stimulation
alert inactivity
the state in which a baby is calm, with eyes open and attentive, and seems to be deliberately inspecting its environment
waking activity
the state in which baby’s eyes are open but seem unfocused while arms and legs move in bursts of uncontrolled motion
crying
the state in which a baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied by agitated but uncoordinated movement
sleeping
the state in which a baby alternates from being still and breathing regularly to moving gently and breathing irregularly, with the eyes closed throughout
basic cry
a cry that starts softly, gradually becomes more intense, and is often heard when babies are hungry or tired
mad cry
a more intense version of a basic cry
pain cry
a cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a long pause and gasping
irregular or rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
sleep in which the infant’s eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the body is quite active
regular (non-REM) sleep
sleep in which the heart rate, breathing, and brain activity are steady
SIDS
sudden infant death syndrome, when a healthy baby dies suddenly for no apparent reason
temperament
A consistent style or pattern of behavior
malnourished
being small for age because of inadequate nutrition
neuron
a basic cellular unit of the brain and nervous system that specializes in receiving and transmitting information
cell body
the center of the neuron that keeps the neuron alive
dendrite
the end of the neuron that receives information, which looks like a tree with many branches
axon
a tube-like structure that emerges from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons
terminal buttons
small knobs at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters
neurotransmitters
chemicals released by terminal buttons that allow neurons to communicate with one another
cerebral cortex
the wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human
hemispheres
right and left halves of the cortex
corpus callosum
a thick bundle of neurons that connects the brain’s two hemispheres
frontal cotex
the brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior
neural plate
a flat group of cells present in prenatal development that becomes the brain and spinal cord
myelin
a fatty sheath that wraps around neurons and enables them to transmit information more rapidly
synaptic pruning
a gradual reduction in the number or synapses, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescence
experience-expectant growth
the process by which the wiring of the brain is organized by experiences that are common to most humans
motor skills
coordinated movements of the muscles and limbs
locomotion
the ability to move around in the world
fine motor skills
body movements associated with grasping, holding, and manipulated objects
dynamic systems theory
the theory that views motor development as involving many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs
differentiation
distinguishing and mastering individual motions
integration
linking individual motions into a coherent, coordinated whole
perception
processes by which the brain receives, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are the result of physical stimulation
visual cliff
a glass covered platform that appears to have a shallow side and a deep side and is used to study the infants’ depth perception
kinetic cues
cues to depth perception in which motion is used to estimate depth
visual expansion
a kinetic clue to depth perception that is based an object filling an ever-greater proportion of the retina as it moves closer
motion parallax
a kinetic cue to depth perception based on nearby objects moving across our visual field faster than distant moving objects
retinal disparity
a way of inferring depth based on differences in the retinal images in the left and right eyes
pictorial cues
cues to depth perception that are used to covey depth in drawings and paintings
linear perspective
a cue to depth perception based on parallel lines coming together at a single point in the distance
texture gradient
a perceptual cue to depth based on the texture of objects changing from coarse to distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distant objects
intersensory redundancy
being attuned to information presented simultaneously to different sensory models
theory of mind
ideas about connections among thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and behavior that create an intuitive understanding of the link between mind and behavior
schemes
according to Piaget, mental structures that organize information and regulate behavior
assimilation
according to Piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what is already known
accommodation
according to Piaget, changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge
equilibrium
according to Piaget, a process by which when disequilibrium occurs, children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium
sensorimotor period
the first of Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately 2 years
object permanence
the understanding, acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently
egocentric
having difficulty seeing the world from another’s point of view, a characteristic typical of children in the preoperational period
centration
according to Piaget, a narrowly focused type of thought characteristic of preoperational children
core knowledge hypothesis
the theory that infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based on experiences
mental hardware
mental and neural structures that are build in and that allow the mind to operate
mental software
mental “programs” that are the basis for preforming particular tasks
attention
processes that determine which information is processed further by an individual
orienting response
an individual views a strong or unfamiliar stimulus, and changes in heart rate and brain wave activity occur
habituation
becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly
classical conditioning
a form of learning that involves pairing a neutral; stimulus and a response originally produced by another stimulus
operant conditioning
a form of learning in which reward and punishment determine the likelihood that a behavior will recur
autobiographical memory
memories of the significant events and experiences of someone’s own life
one to one principle
a counting principle that states that there must be one and only one number name for each object counted
stable order principle
a counting principle that states that there must be one and only one number name for each object counted
cardinality principle
a counting principle in which the last number name denotes the number of objects being counted
zone of proximal development
the difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone
scaffolding
a style in which teaches gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learner’s needs
private speech
a child’s comments that are not intended for others but are designed to help regulate the child’s behavior
phonemes
unique sounds used to create words, making them the basic building blocks of language
infant directed speech
speech that adults use with infants that is slow, has exaggerated changes in pitch and volume, and is thought to aid in language acquisition
cooing
early vowel-like sounds that babies produce
babbling
speech-like sounds that consist of vowel-consonant combinations and are common at about six months
fast mapping
a child’s connections between words and referents that are made so quickly that he or she cannot consider all possible meanings of the word
underextension
when children define words more narrowly than adults do
overextension
when children define words more broadly than adults do
referential style
a language learning style of children whose vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, people, and actions
expressive style
a language learning style of children whose vocabularies include many social phrases that are used like one word
telegraphic speech
speech used by young children that contains only words necessary to convey a message
Grammatical morphemes:
words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical
overregularizations
grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule
hope
according to Erikson, an openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance
will
according to Erikson, a young child’s understanding that he or she can act on the world intentionally, which occurs when autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance
purpose
according to Erikson, a balance between individual initiative and willingness to cooperate with others
attachment
enduring socioeconomical relationships between infants and their caregivers
secure attachment
a relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers
avoidant attachment
a relationship in which infants turn from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation
resistant attachment
a relationship in which, after a brief separation, infants want to be held but are difficult to console
disorganized (disoriented) attachment
a relationship in which infants don’t seem to understand what’s happening when they are separated and later reunited with their mothers
internal working model
an infant’s understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is, which is thought to influence the close relationships throughout the child’s life
basic emotions
emotions influenced by humankinds and that consist of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior
social smiles
smiles that influence produce when they see a human face
stranger warriness
the first distinct signs of fear that emerge around six months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar adults
social referencing behavior
behavior in which infants in unfamiliar or ambiguous environments look at adults for cues to help them interpret the situation
parallel play
when children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing
simple social play
play that begins ad about 15 to 18 months and continues into toddlerhood, when talking and smiling at each other also occur
cooperative play
play that s organized around a theme, with each child taking on a different role, and that begins around 2 years of age
enabling actions
individuals’ actions and remarks that tend to support others and sustain the interaction
constricting actions
interactions in which one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other
prosocial behavior
any behavior that benefits another person
altruism
prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from the behavior
empathy
experiencing another person’s feelings
social role
a set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people
gender stereotypes
beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true
relational agression
aggression used to hurt others by undermining their social relationships
gender identity
a sense of oneself as male of female
gender labeling
young children’s understanding that they are either boys or girls and naming of themselves accordingly
gender stability
the understanding in preschool children that boys become men and girls become women
gender constancy
the understanding that maleness and femaleness do not change over situations or personal wishes
gender-schema theory
a theory that states that children want to learn more about an activity only after first deciding whether it is masculine or feminine
