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PSY 376 > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Human Development

A

the multidisciplinary study of how people change and how they remain the same over time

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2
Q

recurring issues in human development

A

nature vs nurture, continuity vs discontinuity, universal vs context specific development, biopsychosocial framework, neuroscience

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3
Q

nature vs nurture

A

the degree to which genetic or hereditary influences (nature) and experimental or environmental influences (nurture) determine the kind of person you are

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4
Q

continuity vs discontinutiy

A

whether a particular developmental phenomenon represents a smooth progression throughout the lifespan (continuity) or a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity)

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5
Q

universal vs context specific development

A

whether there is just one path of development or several paths

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6
Q

biopsychosocial framework

A

a useful way to organize the biological, psychological, or sociocultural forces of human development

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7
Q

different parts of biopsychosocial framework

A

biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life cycle forces

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8
Q

biological forces

A

genetic and health related factors

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9
Q

psychological forces

A

all internal cognitive, emotional, perceptual, and personality factors

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10
Q

sociocultural forces

A

interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors

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11
Q

life cycle forces

A

differences in how the same event effects different people

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12
Q

neuroscience

A

the study of the brain and nervous system, especially in terms of brain-behavior relationships

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13
Q

theory

A

an organized set of ideas that is designed to explain development

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14
Q

Psychodynamic theories

A

theories by proposing that development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face at different ages

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15
Q

psychosocial theory

A

Erikson’s proposal that personality development is determined by the interaction of an internal maturational plan and external societal demands

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16
Q

epigenetic theory

A

in Erikson’s theory, the idea that each psychosocial strength has its own period of particular importance

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17
Q

behaviorsm

A

BF Skinner. Do consequences of behavior determine if behavior is repeated in the future?

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18
Q

reinforcement

A

a consequence that increases the future likelihood of the behavior that it follows

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19
Q

punishment

A

a consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows

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20
Q

Imitation or observational learning:

A

learning that occurs by watching how others behave

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21
Q

Self efficacy:

A

peoples beliefs about their own abilities and talents

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22
Q

Cognitive Developmental theory:

A

the thought process and construction of knowledge

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23
Q

Piaget’s theory

A
  1. sensorimotor stage
  2. preoperational
  3. concrete operational
  4. formal operational
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24
Q

sensorimotor

A

birth to 2 years. Knowledge based on senses and motor skills

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25
Q

preoperational

A

2 – 6 years. Symbols as language, only through their perspective

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26
Q

concrete operational

A

7 years to early adolescence. Understands and applies logical operations to experiences provided they are focused on here and now

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27
Q

formal operational

A

adolescence +. Thinks abstractly, deals with hypothetical situations, speculates about what may be possible.

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28
Q

information processing theory

A

proposes human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software

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29
Q

Vygotsky’s theory:

A

must consider child’s development against background or environment

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30
Q

Ecological theory:

A

based on the idea that human development is inseparable from the environmental contexts in which a person develops

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31
Q

Bronfenbrenner’s theory

A
  1. microsystem
  2. mesosystem
  3. exosystem
  4. macrosystem
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32
Q

microsystem

A

the people and objects in an individual’s immediate environment

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33
Q

mesosystem

A

provides connections across microsystem

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34
Q

exosystem

A

the social settings a person may not experience first hand but that still influence development

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35
Q

macrosystem

A

the cultures and subcultures in which the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded

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36
Q

competence

A

a person’s abilities

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37
Q

enviromental press

A

the demands put on an individual by the environment

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38
Q

lifespan perspective

A

human development is multiply determined and cannot be understood within the scope of a single framework

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39
Q

selective optimization with compensation model

A

the model in which three processes (selection, optimization, and compensation) form a system of behavioral action that generates and regulates development and aging

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40
Q

life course perspective

A

the ways in which various generations experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective historical contexts

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41
Q

systematic observation

A

watching people and carefully recording what they do or say

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42
Q

naturalistic observation

A

people are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life situation

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43
Q

structured obseravtions

A

the researcher creates a setting that is likely to elicit the behavior of interest

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44
Q

self reports

A

people’s answers to questions about the topic of interest

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45
Q

reliability

A

the extent to which a measure provides a consistent index of a characteristic

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46
Q

validity

A

the extent to which a measure actually assess what you think it assess

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47
Q

populations

A

broad groups od people that are of interest to researchers

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48
Q

sample

A

a subset of the population

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49
Q

correlational study

A

an investigation that looks at relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world

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50
Q

correlational coefficient

A

an expression of the strength and direction of a relation between two variables

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51
Q

experiment

A

a systemic way of manipulating the key factor or factors that the investigator thinks causes a particular behavior

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52
Q

independent variable

A

the variable being manipulated

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53
Q

dependent variable

A

the variable being observed

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54
Q

qualitative research

A

a method that involves gaining in-depth understanding of human behavior and what governs it

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55
Q

longitudinal study

A

a research design in which the same individuals are observed or tested repeatedly at different points in their lives

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56
Q

cross sectional study

A

a study in which developmental differences are identified by testing people of different ages

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57
Q

cohort effects

A

problems with cross sectional designs in which differences between age groups (cohorts) may result as easily from environmental events as from developmental processes

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58
Q

sequential design

A

a developmental research design based on cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

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59
Q

chromosomes

A

threadlike structures in the nuclei of cells that contain genetic material

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60
Q

autosomes

A

the first 22 pairs of chromosomes

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61
Q

sex chromosomes

A

the 23rd pair of chromosomes, which determines the sex of the child

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62
Q

DNA

A

deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that composes one chromosome, making it the biochemical basis of heredity

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63
Q

genes

A

a group of compounds that provides a specific set of biochemical instructions

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64
Q

genotype

A

the complete set of genes that make up a person’s heredity

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65
Q

phenotype

A

physical, behavioral, and psychological features that result from the interactions between an individual’s genes and their environment

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66
Q

alleles

A

variations of genes

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67
Q

homozygous

A

alleles in a pair of chromosomes that are the same

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68
Q

heterozygous

A

alleles in a pair of chromosomes that are different

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69
Q

dominant

A

the allele who’s chemical instructions are followed

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70
Q

recessive

A

the allele who’s chemical instructions are ignored in the presence of a dominant allele

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71
Q

polygenetic inheritence

A

phenotypes are the result of the combined activity of many separate genes

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72
Q

monozygotic twins

A

the result of a single fertilized egg splitting to form two new individuals; also called identical twins

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73
Q

dizygotic twins

A

the result of two separate eggs fertilized by two sperm; also called fraternal twins

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74
Q

niche picking

A

the process of deliberately seeking environments that are compatible with one’s genetic makeup

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75
Q

non-shared environmental influences

A

forces within a family that make siblings different from one another

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76
Q

prenatal development

A

the many changes that turn a fertilized egg into a newborn human

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77
Q

zygote

A

a fertilized egg

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78
Q

germ disk

A

small cluster of cells near the center of the zygote that will eventually develop to form a baby

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79
Q

placenta

A

a structure thought which nutrients and wastes are exchanged between the pregnant woman and developing child

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80
Q

implantation

A

the zygote burrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with a woman’s blood vessels

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81
Q

embryo

A

the term given to zygote after it is completely implanted into the uterine wall

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82
Q

amnion

A

the inner sac in which the developing child rests

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83
Q

amnionic fluid

A

the fluid surrounding the fetus

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84
Q

period of the fetus

A

the longest period of prenatal development, extending from the 9th until the 38th week after conception

85
Q

umbilical cord

A

the structure containing veins and arteries that connects the developing child to the placenta

86
Q

age of viability

A

the age, typically 22-28 weeks after conception, at which a fetus can survive if born because most of its body systems function adequately

87
Q

teratogen

A

an agent that causes abnormal prenatal development

88
Q

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

A

a disorder affecting babies who’s mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while they were pregnant

89
Q

ultrasound

A

a prenatal diagnostic technique that uses sound waves to generate an image of the fetus

90
Q

amniocentesis

A

a prenatal diagnostic technique that uses a syringe to withdraw a sample of amniotic fluid through a pregnant woman’s abdomen

91
Q

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS):

A

a prenatal diagnostic technique that involves taking a sample of tissue from the chorion

92
Q

fetal medicine

A

a field of medicine concerned with treating prenatal problems before birth

93
Q

hypoxia

A

a birth complication in which umbilical blood flow is disrupted and the infant does not receive adequate oxygen

94
Q

preterm

A

premature, babies born before the 36th week

95
Q

low birth weight

A

newborns who weigh less than 2500 grams (5.5 pounds)

96
Q

very low birth weight

A

newborns who weigh less than 1500 grams (3.3 pounds)

97
Q

extremely low birth weight

A

newborns who weigh less than 1000 grams (2.2 pounds)

98
Q

infant mortality

A

the percentage of infants who die before their 1st birthday

99
Q

in vitro fertilization

A

the process by which sperm and an egg are mixed in a petri dish to create a zygote, which is then placed in a woman’s uterus

100
Q

eugenics

A

the effort to improve human species by letting only people whose characteristics are valued by society mate and pass along their genes

101
Q

reflexes

A

unlearned responses triggered by specific stimulation

102
Q

alert inactivity

A

the state in which a baby is calm, with eyes open and attentive, and seems to be deliberately inspecting its environment

103
Q

waking activity

A

the state in which baby’s eyes are open but seem unfocused while arms and legs move in bursts of uncontrolled motion

104
Q

crying

A

the state in which a baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied by agitated but uncoordinated movement

105
Q

sleeping

A

the state in which a baby alternates from being still and breathing regularly to moving gently and breathing irregularly, with the eyes closed throughout

106
Q

basic cry

A

a cry that starts softly, gradually becomes more intense, and is often heard when babies are hungry or tired

107
Q

mad cry

A

a more intense version of a basic cry

108
Q

pain cry

A

a cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a long pause and gasping

109
Q

irregular or rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

A

sleep in which the infant’s eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the body is quite active

110
Q

regular (non-REM) sleep

A

sleep in which the heart rate, breathing, and brain activity are steady

111
Q

SIDS

A

sudden infant death syndrome, when a healthy baby dies suddenly for no apparent reason

112
Q

temperament

A

A consistent style or pattern of behavior

113
Q

malnourished

A

being small for age because of inadequate nutrition

114
Q

neuron

A

a basic cellular unit of the brain and nervous system that specializes in receiving and transmitting information

115
Q

cell body

A

the center of the neuron that keeps the neuron alive

116
Q

dendrite

A

the end of the neuron that receives information, which looks like a tree with many branches

117
Q

axon

A

a tube-like structure that emerges from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons

118
Q

terminal buttons

A

small knobs at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters

119
Q

neurotransmitters

A

chemicals released by terminal buttons that allow neurons to communicate with one another

120
Q

cerebral cortex

A

the wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human

121
Q

hemispheres

A

right and left halves of the cortex

122
Q

corpus callosum

A

a thick bundle of neurons that connects the brain’s two hemispheres

123
Q

frontal cotex

A

the brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior

124
Q

neural plate

A

a flat group of cells present in prenatal development that becomes the brain and spinal cord

125
Q

myelin

A

a fatty sheath that wraps around neurons and enables them to transmit information more rapidly

126
Q

synaptic pruning

A

a gradual reduction in the number or synapses, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescence

127
Q

experience-expectant growth

A

the process by which the wiring of the brain is organized by experiences that are common to most humans

128
Q

motor skills

A

coordinated movements of the muscles and limbs

129
Q

locomotion

A

the ability to move around in the world

130
Q

fine motor skills

A

body movements associated with grasping, holding, and manipulated objects

131
Q

dynamic systems theory

A

the theory that views motor development as involving many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs

132
Q

differentiation

A

distinguishing and mastering individual motions

133
Q

integration

A

linking individual motions into a coherent, coordinated whole

134
Q

perception

A

processes by which the brain receives, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are the result of physical stimulation

135
Q

visual cliff

A

a glass covered platform that appears to have a shallow side and a deep side and is used to study the infants’ depth perception

136
Q

kinetic cues

A

cues to depth perception in which motion is used to estimate depth

137
Q

visual expansion

A

a kinetic clue to depth perception that is based an object filling an ever-greater proportion of the retina as it moves closer

138
Q

motion parallax

A

a kinetic cue to depth perception based on nearby objects moving across our visual field faster than distant moving objects

139
Q

retinal disparity

A

a way of inferring depth based on differences in the retinal images in the left and right eyes

140
Q

pictorial cues

A

cues to depth perception that are used to covey depth in drawings and paintings

141
Q

linear perspective

A

a cue to depth perception based on parallel lines coming together at a single point in the distance

142
Q

texture gradient

A

a perceptual cue to depth based on the texture of objects changing from coarse to distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distant objects

143
Q

intersensory redundancy

A

being attuned to information presented simultaneously to different sensory models

144
Q

theory of mind

A

ideas about connections among thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and behavior that create an intuitive understanding of the link between mind and behavior

145
Q

schemes

A

according to Piaget, mental structures that organize information and regulate behavior

146
Q

assimilation

A

according to Piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what is already known

147
Q

accommodation

A

according to Piaget, changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge

148
Q

equilibrium

A

according to Piaget, a process by which when disequilibrium occurs, children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium

149
Q

sensorimotor period

A

the first of Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately 2 years

150
Q

object permanence

A

the understanding, acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently

151
Q

egocentric

A

having difficulty seeing the world from another’s point of view, a characteristic typical of children in the preoperational period

152
Q

centration

A

according to Piaget, a narrowly focused type of thought characteristic of preoperational children

153
Q

core knowledge hypothesis

A

the theory that infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based on experiences

154
Q

mental hardware

A

mental and neural structures that are build in and that allow the mind to operate

155
Q

mental software

A

mental “programs” that are the basis for preforming particular tasks

156
Q

attention

A

processes that determine which information is processed further by an individual

157
Q

orienting response

A

an individual views a strong or unfamiliar stimulus, and changes in heart rate and brain wave activity occur

158
Q

habituation

A

becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly

159
Q

classical conditioning

A

a form of learning that involves pairing a neutral; stimulus and a response originally produced by another stimulus

160
Q

operant conditioning

A

a form of learning in which reward and punishment determine the likelihood that a behavior will recur

161
Q

autobiographical memory

A

memories of the significant events and experiences of someone’s own life

162
Q

one to one principle

A

a counting principle that states that there must be one and only one number name for each object counted

163
Q

stable order principle

A

a counting principle that states that there must be one and only one number name for each object counted

164
Q

cardinality principle

A

a counting principle in which the last number name denotes the number of objects being counted

165
Q

zone of proximal development

A

the difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone

166
Q

scaffolding

A

a style in which teaches gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learner’s needs

167
Q

private speech

A

a child’s comments that are not intended for others but are designed to help regulate the child’s behavior

168
Q

phonemes

A

unique sounds used to create words, making them the basic building blocks of language

169
Q

infant directed speech

A

speech that adults use with infants that is slow, has exaggerated changes in pitch and volume, and is thought to aid in language acquisition

170
Q

cooing

A

early vowel-like sounds that babies produce

171
Q

babbling

A

speech-like sounds that consist of vowel-consonant combinations and are common at about six months

172
Q

fast mapping

A

a child’s connections between words and referents that are made so quickly that he or she cannot consider all possible meanings of the word

173
Q

underextension

A

when children define words more narrowly than adults do

174
Q

overextension

A

when children define words more broadly than adults do

175
Q

referential style

A

a language learning style of children whose vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, people, and actions

176
Q

expressive style

A

a language learning style of children whose vocabularies include many social phrases that are used like one word

177
Q

telegraphic speech

A

speech used by young children that contains only words necessary to convey a message

178
Q

Grammatical morphemes:

A

words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical

179
Q

overregularizations

A

grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule

180
Q

hope

A

according to Erikson, an openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance

181
Q

will

A

according to Erikson, a young child’s understanding that he or she can act on the world intentionally, which occurs when autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance

182
Q

purpose

A

according to Erikson, a balance between individual initiative and willingness to cooperate with others

183
Q

attachment

A

enduring socioeconomical relationships between infants and their caregivers

184
Q

secure attachment

A

a relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers

185
Q

avoidant attachment

A

a relationship in which infants turn from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation

186
Q

resistant attachment

A

a relationship in which, after a brief separation, infants want to be held but are difficult to console

187
Q

disorganized (disoriented) attachment

A

a relationship in which infants don’t seem to understand what’s happening when they are separated and later reunited with their mothers

188
Q

internal working model

A

an infant’s understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is, which is thought to influence the close relationships throughout the child’s life

189
Q

basic emotions

A

emotions influenced by humankinds and that consist of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior

190
Q

social smiles

A

smiles that influence produce when they see a human face

191
Q

stranger warriness

A

the first distinct signs of fear that emerge around six months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar adults

192
Q

social referencing behavior

A

behavior in which infants in unfamiliar or ambiguous environments look at adults for cues to help them interpret the situation

193
Q

parallel play

A

when children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing

194
Q

simple social play

A

play that begins ad about 15 to 18 months and continues into toddlerhood, when talking and smiling at each other also occur

195
Q

cooperative play

A

play that s organized around a theme, with each child taking on a different role, and that begins around 2 years of age

196
Q

enabling actions

A

individuals’ actions and remarks that tend to support others and sustain the interaction

197
Q

constricting actions

A

interactions in which one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other

198
Q

prosocial behavior

A

any behavior that benefits another person

199
Q

altruism

A

prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from the behavior

200
Q

empathy

A

experiencing another person’s feelings

201
Q

social role

A

a set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people

202
Q

gender stereotypes

A

beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true

203
Q

relational agression

A

aggression used to hurt others by undermining their social relationships

204
Q

gender identity

A

a sense of oneself as male of female

205
Q

gender labeling

A

young children’s understanding that they are either boys or girls and naming of themselves accordingly

206
Q

gender stability

A

the understanding in preschool children that boys become men and girls become women

207
Q

gender constancy

A

the understanding that maleness and femaleness do not change over situations or personal wishes

208
Q

gender-schema theory

A

a theory that states that children want to learn more about an activity only after first deciding whether it is masculine or feminine

PSY 376 (8 decks)

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