Test 1 Flashcards
define etiology
origins and causes of disorders
what are the 4 types of etiology
supernatural, biological, psychological, and social
what is the supernatural view for mental health problems
the perceived cause was spirits, demons, divine punishment, and witchcraft
what are the supernatural treatment methods
exorcisms (expel spirits), trephination (drilling holes in the skill to release evil spirits), prayer and religious rituals (appealing to divine intervention)
history of clinical psychology - ancient greece
(important person, predominant view, treatments (if applicable))
hippocrates (father of western medicine), and the origin of biopsychological view OVER supernatural views
history of clinical psychology - middle ages (~1500)
(important person, predominant view, treatments (if applicable))
st vincent de paul. rise of biological view and the asylum model. treatments included blood letting, squalid conditions, chaining to walls.
history of clinical psychology - enlightenmend period (~1700)
(important person, predominant view, treatments (if applicable))
psychogenic and rise of the hospital model and scientific approach. continuous advocation for humane treatment of patients
what are willhelm wundt’s contributions
experimental psychologist who founded the first lab in germany. first to research psychological constructs and processes such as sensation and perception, laying the groundwork for more applied clinical intervention
what are lightner witmer’s contributions
student of wundt who founded the first psychology clinic. emphasized the application of psychological principles for treatment purposes
what effect did the world war I and II have on psychology
emergence of psychological testing and intervention (and psychotherapy). due to the need to treat veterans with trauma after the war, there was an increased consideration of diagnostic/therapeutic methods.
how did the US Army benefit from the emergence of psychological testing and intervention
screen recruits showing the practical relevance of clinical assessments, and completed personality and intelligence tests to see if they were suited for a certain career
who was francis summer
father of black psychology, first black man to earn a PhD in psych. advocated for addressing racial bias in psychological research and promoting diversity in education
what does black psychology focus on
understanding/addressing the mental health and experiences of black people through a culturally relevant and empowering lens
who who was inez beverly prosser
first black woman to earn a PhD in psychology and studied the impact of segregated/integrated schools on black children’s self esteem/academics. advocated for safe and nurturing educational spaces to support black students
who was albert sidney beckham
one of the first black clinical psychologists and pioneer of school psychology, established first psychological clinic in a public school and emphasized the impact of social, emotional and environmental factors on academic performance
which 2 psychologists focused on school psychology
albert sidney beckham and inez beverly prosser
who was braulino alonso
pioneered work in counseling psychology for latinx students, advocated for educational equity and increased mental health access for marginalized communities. emphasized the need for competent counseling
what treatment did freud and breuer use
hypnosis (free association) and catharsis (release repressed memories, therapeutic benefit)
according to freud, what are the 3 levels of unconsciousness
- conscious with thoughts and perceptions
- subconscious with memories and stored knowledge
- unconscious with fears and socially unacceptable desires
according to freud, what are the 3 components of the mind
id, ego, superego
what disorder does too much id lead to
impulsive disorders
what disorder does too much superego lead to
compulsive disorders
what theory comes from carl rogers
humanistic theory
what is the humanistic theory
draws from maslow’s hierarchy of needs and values human connection, thwarted needs (particularly from parental figures)
what is unconditional regard and which theory uses it
where the patient is loved regardless of mistakes/achievements, used by humanistic theorists
what treatment is used by humanistic theorists
person-centered therapy (unconditional positive regard, empathy, genuineness, self-actualization)
who came up with the behaviorist model
skinner and watson
what is the behaviorist model
operational and classical conditioning
define classical conditioning
a NS is paired with an UR. NS becomes CS. now, CS will elicit a CR without the need for a NS
behaviour is learned through repeated associations between stimuli
what are the 2 treatments in the behaviorist model
e.g., used for classical conditioning
extinguishing and systematic desensitization
define cognitive model
disorders are a result of biased and distorted thoughts
what treatment is presented by the cognitive model
identify biased thought and challenge them with evidence
what are the 3 ds in abnormality
- dysfunction, breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or behavioural functioning
- distress or impairment, feeling upset about the problem or interfering with function
- deviant, atypical or not culturally expected from socio-cultural norms
give some examples of unidimensional explanations
- genes cause schizophrenia
- video games cause violent baheviours
- coddling children cause narcissism
what is interconnectedness and feedback loops in the multidimensional approach?
when one action/event leads to a domino effect
low self-esteem -> not socializing -> isolation -> depression
what treatments would be used in the biological aspect of the biopsychosocial model?
- medical evaluation for contributors to depression
- explore the use of antidepressants
- encourage regular physical activity
what treatments would be used in the psychological aspect of the biopsychosocial model?
- increase daily pleasurable activities to improve mood
- challenge negative thinking
- process emotions in a healthy way
what treatments would be used in the social aspect of the biopsychosocial model?
- gradually reconnect with friends
- engage with community to find others with common interests
what does the multidimensional model explain?
mental illness is a system of reciprocal influences with complex interactions.
treating one aspect will likely influence other components
how do genes contribute to psychological disorders?
disorders are mostly polygenetic, meaning no individual gene have been identified to any major psychological disorder (except alzheimer’s)
if one identical twin has a disorder, 50% chance the other will too
how does the environment contribute to psychological disorders?
environmental factors influence the expression of different genes
what is the diathesis-stress model?
- Genetic Vulnerability (aka Diathesis) x Stress (environmental factors) = Psychological Disorder
- Environmental stress interacts with genetics to predict whether a perosn will exprience a psychological disorder
identify and define the 2 types of stress in the diathesis-stress model
- percipitating stress: specific events that trigger an issue
- predisposing stress: genetic
what is the reciprocal gene-environment model?
- people with certain genetic traits are more likely to experience stress that can lead to psychopathology
- genetic trait -> stress -> psychological disorder
it is a bit of victim blaming
what is epigenetics?
- genes are turned on/off by cellular material outside of the genome
- environmental factors influence epigenome
- biological evidence of the effects of generational trauma
how does the frontal lobe contribute to psychological disorders?
- involved in decision making, stm, impulse control
- dysfunctions like depression, anxiety, ADHD, other mood disorders
not fully developed until 25 years old
how does the limbic system contribute to psychological disorders?
- emotion regulation, fear response, memory formation
- imbalances associated with anxiety disorder, PTSD, and depression
includes structures like the amygdala, hippocampus, and the hypothalamus
what is serotonin? what are the consequences when it is imbalanced?
- regulates mood, appetite, and sleep
- low levels associated with depression
what is dopamine? what are the consequences when it is imbalanced?
- involved in reward, motivation, and pleasure systems
- dysregulation linked to schizophrenia, addiction, and Parkinson’s disease
what is norepinephrine? what are the consequences when it is imbalanced?
- influences alertness, arousal, and the stress response
- imbalances can contribute to anxiety disorders and depression
what is neuroplasticity?
brain’s wiring is plastic and can be reconstructed
what can psychological intervention do to the brain inference to rewiring?
- alter neural pathways associated with negative thinking
- increase activity in the prefrontal cortex, enhancing control over limbic system
- reduce activity in the amygdala, reducing stress/anxiety
how does pharmacotherapy work?
influences the chemical processes in the brain
what are the 4 main types of psychopharmaceuticals?
- SSRIs
- antipsychotic drugs
- stimulants
- benzodiazepines
how do SSRIs work?
increase serotonin levels, affecting mood and anxiety
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
how do antipsychotic drugs work?
regulate dopamine activity, essential for schizophrenia treatment
how do stimulants work?
increases dopamine and norepinephrine, used for ADHD
how do benzodiazepines work?
fast-acting anxiety medications that enhance the effect of GABA (NT that inhibits brain activity)
what is the classification of psychological disorders?
it is a central element of all branches of science, allowing us to organize, describe, and relate
what are the pros of classification or labelling?
- taxonomy: organizes presentations into meaningful groups
- nomenclature: helps with communication, and helps people access certain accessibility services
- treatment and insurance
- social understanding of the severity of the disorder
what are the cons of classification or labelling?
- labelling and stereotyping
- stigma-based discrimination
what are the pros to categorical approaches?
- simplifies communication
- helps with treatment planning
- easy research participant classification
- ease of administration in hospital settings
what are the cons to categorical approaches?
- heterogeneity issues: depression may look very different for two people
- boundary and threshold disputes/arbitrary timelines and thresholds
what is the dimensional approach to psychological disorders?
views psychopathology as existing on a continuum rather than in discrete categories (scales, dimensions), recognizing overlapping and variability in symptoms, experience, and intensity
what is cloninger’s seven factor model?
- temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, persistence
- character: self-directedness, cooperativeness, self-transcendence
what are millon’s three polarities?
- pleasure - pain
- active - passive
- self - other
what are the pros to the dimensional approach?
- diagnostic reliability and stability
- eliminate boundary disputes
- gather more patient information
- may benefit therapy
what are the cons to the dimensional approach?
- still requires thresholds
- lack of agreement on dimensions (which ones, and how many?)
what type of approach does the DSM-V follow? explain.
prototypical approach: essential characteristics and non-essential variations
what is the DSM-V?
main classification system of adult and child mental illnesses with broad categories, symptom descriptions and differential diagnosis
what is the prolonged grief disorder?
intense and persistent longing or preoccupation with the deceased, causing significant distress and impairment in daily functioning which last for an extended period post-loss
what are the pros/strengths of DSM-V?
- common language and criteria for diagnosis
- consistency acorss clinicians, researchers, and institutions
- not biased towards one theory
what are the cons/criticisms of the DSM-V?
- not consistent with scientific advances
- over-influenced by the drug industry
- does not take whole person into account
- limites use for psychotherapy
what are some DSM’s unresolved issues?
- appropriateness of medical model (too symptom-focuses, superficial)
- dimensions vs categories
- validity and reliability of categories; no natural boundaries
why is clincial assessment important?
- formulate diagnosis
- understand individuals
- predict behaviours
- plan and narrow treatment
- evaluate treatment outcomes
- help clients understand, t/f making them feel less ashamed
this is the clinical treatment reasons (other is research reasons)
what are the 3 characteristics of strong assessment tools?
- reliability: measure consistently
- validity: measurement accuracy
- standardization: guidelines to ensure consistency
what are the 2 components of reliability in assessment tools?
- inter-rater: different observers should agree that a person’s behaviour fit a certain diagnosis
- test-retest: taking a test multiple times should produce the same results
give some examples of assessment tools
- physical exams
- psychology tests
- behavioural assessment
- psychophsyiological assessment
- neurophysiological assessment
- neuroimaging
- clinical interviews
what is a diagnosis?
a clinical judgement about an individual’s mental health condition based on observed symptoms, behaviurs, and history
identifies/labels psych disorders using established criteria like DSM
what is the controlled act of a diagnosis?
a task/procedure that is legally restricted to certain regulated professionals due to potential harm if performed incorrectly. E.g., diagnosing is considered a controlled act because it requires specialized knowledge, training, and judgement
who can diagnose in ontario?
- psychiatrists
- clinical psychologists
- nurse practitioners
- physicians
clinical psychologists can only diagnose psychological disorders
how can psychologists determine a diagnosis?
- compile collected data from assessment
- identify patterns and clustering symptoms that may fit a mental health condition
- may refer to the DSM for specific criteria
- symptoms must meet the required criteria
what is a differential diagnosis?
when clinicians evaluate overlapping symptoms to rule out disorders that may present similarly
e.g., distinguishing between depression and bipolarity
what are cultural considerations in diagnosis?
clinicians assess how cultural context may influence symptoms or behaviorus
why is feedback important in diagnosis?
clinicians discuss their findings with the client for clarity and to ensure accuracy
what is an important part of the diagnosis?
communciation
clinicians share the diagnosis with the client, explaining it in a clear and supportive manner
what are the 4 components when designing a study?
- ethics
- research questions and hypotheses
- samples
- validity issues
what is important in research studies?
there are 4
- competence: must ensure participants have capacity to provide consent
- voluntarism
- full disclosure
- comprehension: participants understand all possible risks and benefits
what is the independent variable?
(IV or X) a variable that stands alone and isn’t changed by the other variables you are trying to measure
what is a dependent variable?
(DV or Y) something that depends on other factors
what is an example of a research question with IV and DV?
what is the studying (IV) on test grades (DV)
what is a hypothesis?
researcher’s supposition about probable links between variables.
starting point for further investigation
what are the types of sampling bias?
- experimenter bias
- self-selection bias
- attrition bias
what is the experimeneter bias?
occurs when scientists’ hypotheses influence their results, even if involuntarily
what is the self-selection bias?
occurs when participants voluntarily choose to participate in a study or program group rather than being randomly selected into one
what is attrition bias?
the selective dropout of some participants who systematically differ from those who remain in the study
the ____ the line on a correlation graph the ____ the correspondance
steeper, higher
what is the third variable problem?
type of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others
what does the manipulation of IV cause?
ehtical issues – cannot assign participants to harmful conditions (e.g., abuse, neglect, war)
what are internal/external validity issues?
- internal validity is the degree of confidence that the causal relationship you are testing is not influenced by other factors or variables.
- external validity is the extent to which your results can be generalized to other contexts
what are some experimental research strengths and weaknesses?
- allows conclusions about causality
- caution still required (interal validity achieved? limited external validity?)
- sometimes impossible or unethical
what is the nature of studying inidividual cases?
- extensive observation
- rich source of info about a case
- foundation of early historic developments in psychopathology
what are some limitations of the case study?
- lacks scientific rigor and suitable contorls
- often entails numerous factors that make results uninterpretable
what are cross sectional trends over time?
- snapshots in time
- different age groups
what are some disadvantages of cross sectional trends over time?
risk of cohort effects (something that affected the results unique to that snapshot in time)
what are longitudinal trends over time?
same individuals over time
what are some challenges in longitudinal trends?
- cross-generational effect
- resources
- patience
- study drop-outs
what are some helpful natures/functions of anxiety?
- alerts us to real/potential danger
- prepares us to act
- helps us escape danger
- exists in moderate amounts
what are some harmful natures/functions of anxiety?
- excessive levels relative to “threat”
- interferes with functioning
what is the yerkes-dodson law?
- low: increasing attention and interest
- medium: optimal arousal/performance
- high: impaired performance due to strong anxiety
describes how anciety affects performance
where does anxiety come from?
- evolved threat system
- activated in response to dangers in the external environment
- in humans, activated by danger that is not physical (real or imagined, external or internal)
people with anxiety disorders have a ________ “threat sysetm”
highly sensitive
what is generalized anxiety disorder?
anxiety that causes excessive wory and difficulty controlling these worries.
must last for 6 months or more
what are some symptoms of GAD?
- restlessness or feeling on edge
- being easily fatigued
- difficulty concentrating or mind going blank
- irritability
- muscle tension
- sleep disturbance
what are some biological factors associated with GAD?
- inherited tendency to be tense and reactive
- highly sensitive nervous system
what are some learning factors associated with GAD?
- early stressful experiences
- modelling from others (learn that the world is dangerous and you cannot cope)
what are some cognitive factors associated with GAD?
- belief that worrying is helpful
- difficulty tolerating uncertainty
- cognitive avoidance: lost in mid, avoid engaging with reality
- attention: biased towards threatening information
what are the 2 types of medication used to treat GAD?
- benzodiazepines
- antidepressants
how do benzodiazepines work as a treatment of GAD?
- short term relief
- significant side effects: impairment and poor concentration
- dependence
how do antidepressants work as a treatment of GAD?
- safer long term
- fewer significant side effects
- not habit-forming
how does psychotherapy work as a treatment of GAD? give examples.
- as effective as medication short-term
- more beneficial long-term
- cognitive behaviour therapy: relaxation techniques, challenge thoughts, mindfulness and worry time
what are obsessions?
intrusive, nonsensical thoughts, images, or urges that one tries to resist or eliminate, causing anxiety
what are compulsions?
repetitive, ritualistic actions meant to provide relief and supress obsessions
the obsessions and/or compulsions are ____ and cause ____.
time consuming, significant distress or impairment in social, occupational and other important areas of functioning
what is OCD not caused by?
substance, medical conditions, or other psychological disorders
how does OCD cause impairment?
- disrupts daily life (work, relationships, self-care)
- causes intense anxiety if rituals aren’t performed
- triggers avoidance
- lack of rational control over compulsions
what are some DSM-5 TR specifiers for OCD?
- with good or fair insight: knows what they are doing and why
- with poor insight
- with absent insight/delusional beliefs
clincially meaningful information on how the disorder presents itself
what are the 3 most common obsessions in OCD?
- agression: unrealistic thoughts of hurting a loved one
- contamination
- symmetry and exactness
what are the 3 most common compulsions in OCD?
- checking: to see if the stove is off, doors are locked, etc.
- washing/cleaning
- ordering/arranging
how does cognitive function cause OCD?
- structural abnormalities in the caudate nucleus
- low serotonin strongly implied
- attention drawn to disturbing materal relevent to obsessive concerns
what are 3 causes of OCD?
- genes: moderately heritable
- brain and cognitive function
- early learning: taught that some thoughts are dangerous and unacceptable
what are some maintenance factors in OCD?
- thought-action fusions
- attempts at suppression
- inflated sense of responsibility and guilt
what are the medical treatments for OCD?
- antidepressants (SSRIs)
- in severe cases, psychosurgery (cingulotomy - incision to cingulate gyrus)
what is a psychological treatment for OCD?
exposure and reponse prevention (ERP)
what is used to measure correlation?
pearson correlation coefficient (r)
