Test 1 Flashcards
correlation research
statistical method assessing association between variables
experimental research
manipulating a variable - cause & effect
independent variable (IV)
variable researcher manipulates
levels
IV=light, the levels are dark or light
dependent variable (DV)
variable being measured - depends on IV
5 Moral Principles
1) respect for persons (informed consent)
2) risk/benefit analysis
3) justice (ppl in study should benefit from results)
4) trust (confidentiality)
5) fidelity/scientific integrity
active deception
intentionally providing false information or misleading
passive deception
withholding crucial information
STUDY: Real vs Imagined Gender Harassment (Woodzicka & LaFrance)
Study 1: imagined responses to harassment - asked how they’d feel
Result: most imagined they’d be confrontational
Study 2: creating sexual harassment in the lab - job interview where male interviewer asked harassing questions
Result: no one refused to answer, few confronted
spotlight effect
belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance/behavior than they really are
illusion of transparency
the illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others
STUDY: Being nervous about looking nervous
- Savitsky & Gilovich (2003)
- wondered if “illusion of transparency” would disrupt inexperienced public speakers
- 40 students in pairs spoke for 3 min, switched, then rated how nervous they were/partner appeared
RESULTS: people rated selves as seeming more nervous BUT partners rated not nervous
self-concept
our understanding of who we are
self-schema
beliefs by which we define ourselves
social comparisons
evaluating one’s abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others
individualism
the concept of giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
- Western thinking
collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one’s group and defining one’s identity accordingly
- Eastern/Asian thinking
STUDY: Fish bowl - culture & cognition
- when shown underwater study with fish, Americans focus on fish first, Asians more likely to notice the background
planning fallacy
tendency to underestimate how long a task will take
impact bias
overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events
dual attitude system
Differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object
terror management theory
argues humans must find a way to manage overwhelming fear of death
self-efficacy
sense that one is competent and effective
- strong self-efficacy = less anxious & depressed
defensive pessimism
anticipating problems, anxiety to motivate
false consensus effect
overestimating commonality of one opinion
self-handicapping
protecting self through deprecating behaviors
working self concept
self schemas presently active in thought/memory
independent (individualistic) emphasis on:
- internal abilities
- uniqueness/expressing self
- being direct in communication
interdependent (collectivistic) emphasis on:
- external, public features (status, role, relationship)
- belong & fitting in
- occupying status in community
- indirect in communication
3 Functions of the Self”
1) organizational - self concept made of schemas (helps organize)
2) emotional - self helps determine emotional responses
3) executive - self control
looking glass self theory (Cooley 1902)
we are who others think we are
social comparison theory (Festinger)
we learn about ourselves through comparison to others
self serving bias
we pay attention to info consistent with self concept
System 1 (automatic processing)
functions automatically, intuition, gut feeling
- also called Automatic Processing
System 2 (controlled processing)
deliberate, controlled, conscious thinking
- also called controlled processing
priming
activating particular associations in memory - things we don’t even consciously notice but subtly influence how we recall events
embodied cognition
mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences & social judgement
intuitive judgements
our thinking is partly automatic & partly controlled
confirmation bias
tendency to search for information that confirms preconceptions
ex: picking news sources to align with beliefs
representative heuristic
to judge someone by intuitively comparing it to our mental representation
availability heuristic
the more easily we recall something, the more likely it is to be true
counterfactual thinking
imagining alternative scenarios & outcomes that might have happened
EX: bronze medalists exhibit more joy than silver
illusory correlation
perception of a relationship where in reality there is none
STUDY: The Pill Study (Nisbett & Schachter)
-often ignore enviro factors that had big impacts
- students asked to take series of shocks of increasing intensity
- IV: before, 1/2 students given fake pill they were told would produce anxiety
- DV: looked at how much shock they would take
RESULTS: people who took the pill withstood 4x more shock, BUT denied the pill had any impact
STUDY: Nisbett & Wilson
- participants watch film & told they will be tested
- IV: 1/2 participants heard a power saw outside the lab room while watching film
- DV: participants asked how much they think the noise effected their performance
RESULT: noise had no real impact on scores but all thought it did
2 Factor Theory of Emotion (Schacter)
1) experience physiological arousal
2) look to cues in environment to explain arousal
STUDY: Shaky Bridge Study (Dutton & Aron)
Misattribution of emotion
- all male participants - set at park where attractive woman asks them to fil out a questionnaire
- after the questionnaire, the woman gives her phone # and says to give her a call
- IV: some men meet woman ON shaky bridge others cross bridge & meet 10 min after crossing
-DV: what # of men call her and ask her out
RESULT: 60% men from bridge called / 30% off bridge called
self presentation
attempt to present selves as who we want people to believe we are through words, behavior and actions
impression management
conscious/unconscious orchestration of presentation to fit social goals
belief perserverance
persistence of initial conceptions, even when discredited
misinformation effect
people incorporate misinformation into memory of the event after witnessing it
attribution theory
how we explain others behavior/ what we infer from it
ex: internal or external causes
dispositional attribution
attributing behavior to the persons disposition and traits
Kelley’s Covariation Model
- explains if people decide to make internal or external variation
1) consensus - how is everyone responding to stimuli
2) distinctiveness - how one actor behaves
3) consistency - behavior between actor & stimuli is consistent
internal attribution
WHY is about the other persons actions (dispositional)
external attribution
WHY is about environment (situational)
fundamental attribution error
tendency to overestimate extent people’s behavior is because of internal factors & underestimate situational factors
STUDY: Castro Study (Jones & Harris)
- students asked to read an essay from a student - essay either for or against Castro’s rule & students asked to guess how author feels about Castro
- condition 1: author given free choice to right for/against
- condition 2: author told to write for or against
IV: what students were told about conditions of paper
DV: how much do you believe that author does/doesn’t support Castro
RESULTS: found similar results whether told author had/didn’t have a choice
STUDY: Fiske & Taylor
- actor A & B have scripted conversation with 50/50 talking
- observers sat in chairs at different angles & asked how much they thought each actor spoke
RESULT: observers facing both said 50/50 BUT those facing A OR B said actor they were facing as having spoken more
ABCs of Attitude
Affect (feelings)
Behavior tendency
Cognition (thoughts)
Alan Wicker
studied variety of people & found people expressed attitude HARDLY predicted behavior
when attitudes predict behavior:
- minimal other influences on what we say/do
- attitude is specific to the behavior
- when attitude is potent
implicit-association test (IAD)
used to measure implicit attitudes
- uses reaction times to measure speed people associate concepts
STUDY: Stanford Prison Study (Zimbardo)
- question of is prison brutality b/c of prisoners or role of guards?
- college men volunteered to stay in simulated prison - 1/2 guards & 1/2 prisoners
- had to stop after 6 days b/c students fell so heavily into roles
STUDY: Killing Begets Killing (Andy Martens)
- would killing a few bugs increase a students willingness to kill bugs after trial?
- those who thought they killed bugs killed more bugs during time period after study
self presentation
impression management - caring what others think
cognitive dissonance
tension arises when two of our thoughts or beliefs are inconsistent
selective exposure
tendency to seek information & media that agrees with one’s views & beliefs
insufficient justification
relieving dissonance by internally justifying behavior when external doesn’t
self-perception theory
looking at our behavior as someone else might when we’re unsure of our attitudes
over-justification effect
result of bribing people to do what they already doing - takes away the enjoyment
STUDY: Thin slices of behavior (Ambady & Rosenthal)
- gave students 30 sec SILENT clips of professor’s lectures & had them rate the professors personal qualities (enthusiastic, teaching ability, etc)
- reliable ratings (consensus)
- rating were significant predictors of end-of-term evals
- rating still accurate when clips shortened as much as 5 seconds
verbal communication channels
- verbal
- paralinguistic (tone)
- nonverbal (body language)
visible communication channels
- facial expressions
- eye contact
- body language/gestures
STUDY: South Fore People (Ekman & Friesen)
- South Fore: preliterate tribe with no western contact
- told Fore brief stories with emotional content then showed pictures of americans expressing the 6 emotions all know - asked to match expressions to stories
- Fore asked to demonstrate expressions that match emotional stories - brought to americans who accurately decoded emotions
6 Universal Emotions
- anger
-sadness - fear
- disgust
- surprise
- happiness
STUDY: Late Bloomer Study (Rosenthal & Jacobson)
self fulfilling beliefs
- students given placement tests with false results reported
- teachers told 1/2 randomly selected would be ‘bloomers’
- observed class dynamics & tested kids at end of year
RESULT: ‘bloomers’ bloomed
Rosenthal 4 Factor Theory - Bloomer Study
1) climate - warmer to bloomers
2) input - more attention on bloomers
3) output - bloomers given more opportunities
4) feedback - bloomers given more informative feedback
STUDY: Attitudes/Behavior Inconsistency (LaPiere)
- early 1930s LaPiere went on cross country trip with Chinese couple (Chinese prejudice common at time)
- went to 251 establishments, only 1 refused them service
- after trip - wrote each business asking if they would serve Chinese guests - of responses, 1 said they would provide service (90% would not)
STUDY: Woodzicka & LaFrance (2001)
- looked at anticipated vs actual responses to gender harassment
Affective forecasting
predicting specific emotion/durability of future
Dual Attitude System
- controlled/explicit (System 2)
- automatic/implicit (System 1)
Study: Fazio
- had people rate feelings toward different candy bars
- attitude based on reaction time
