Terms in study guide Flashcards
In categorical reasonng, the statements or claims of interest are..
categorical statements, those that make simple assertions about categories, or classes, of things
In ___ _____ ___ statemetnts, subject and predicate terms cant be anything but __, ___ and __ , phrases
In standard form categorical statements, subject and predicate terms cant be anything but nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases
the copula is..
linking verb, either are or are not
What is a quantifier
A word that expresses the quantity, or number, of a categorical statement.
ex; all, no, and some
What is a categorical statement that is affirmative in quality ?
A categorical statement that affirms that a class ie entirely or partly included in another class is said to be affirmative in quality
categorical statement that is negative in quality
A categorical statement that denies that a class is entirely or partly included in another class
Singular statements
asserts something abuot a single person or thing (includes objects, places, and times
what does the x being in the middle mean if theres only s and p?
That at least ine S member is a P member
What if x is in the s circle only
Indicates that at least one s is not a p
What if entire S region is shaded ?
all members of the S lass are also members of the p class
What if only the middle is shaded ? (venn diagram)
no situation in which s overlaps p. So, no S are P
categorical syllogism
consists of 3 categoriical statements (A, E, I , O) interlnked in a specific way
in a categorical syllogism, we refer to the predicate term in the conclusion as what ?
the predicate term for the whole argument
Explain middle term, predicate term, and subject term argument form
All M are P.
All S are M.
Therefore, all S are P.
Summarize, categorical syllogism is one that has..
- There are three categorical statements: two premises and a conclusion.
- The argument includes exactly three terms, with each term appearing precisely twice.
- The middle term appears in both premises but not in the conclusion.
- The predicate term appears as the predicate in the conclusion and in one of the premises.
- The subject term appears as the subject in the conclusion and in one of the premises.
Hope that helps!
name the four standard forms of categorical statement
- Universal affirmative
- Universal negative
- Particular affirmative
- Particular negative
Enumerative induction
When you make an observation about some members of a group and end with a generelization of all of them
representative sample
it must resemble the target group in all the way that matter, if it doesnt it is a biased sample
Hasty generilization
The drawing of a conclusion about a target group on the basis of a sample thats too small
what is a causal claim and causal argument
casual claim : statemtn about the causes of things
causal argument : an inductive argument whose conclusion contains a casual claim
inference to the best explanation
Inference to the Best Explanation is a method where you reach a conclusion about a particular phenomenon by evaluating the available evidence and selecting the explanation that best accounts for it.
What is a key issue in causal reasoning
Whether the factors preceding an effect are truly relevant to that effect.
What is an example of an irrelevant factor in causal reasoning?
In the case of Elmo’s bar, if all those who became ill had black hair, it is unlikely that hair color is related to intestinal illness.
What should relevant factors include?
Only those things that could possibly be causally connected to the occurrence of the phenomenon being studied.
What is the post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy?
It’s the logical fallacy of assuming that because one event follows another, the first event caused the second
What often misleads people about coincidences?
They mistake ordinary paired events as having a causal connection.
Can you give an example of ordinary events being paired in unusual ways?
You think of Quebec, then suddenly a TV ad announces low-cost train fares to Montreal.
What should you consider when suspecting a causal connection?
The connection should pass one or more standard causal tests, and relevant factors should be ruled out.
What is a common confusion in causal relationships?
Sometimes we may realize there’s a causal relationship between two factors but may not know which factor is the cause and which is the effect.
Give an example of a confusion between cause and effect.
Does coffee drinking cause stress, or does stress cause coffee drinking?
What is another example of cause and effect confusion?
Does participation in high school sports produce virtues like discipline, or do such virtues lead students to participate in sports?
What should guide our judgment in doubtful cases of cause and effect?
Our rule of thumb should be our guide: don’t assume a causal connection unless you have good reason for doing so.
explain necessary and sufficient condition
A necessary condition for the occurence of an evennt is one without whcih the event cannot occur
A sufficient condition for the occurence of an event is one that guarantees that the event occurs
What are the necessary conditions for a water-filled balloon to break when dropped from a height?
Releasing the balloon
The force of gravity acting on the water
The weakness of the balloon material (its breakability)
The hardness of the pavemen
What happens if any necessary condition for the balloon’s breaking is not present?
The water balloon will not break.
What constitutes a sufficient condition for the balloon’s breaking?
The combination of all necessary conditions (and possibly others) is sufficient to guarantee the balloon’s breaking.
Can you have conditions that are jointly sufficient but not individually necessary?
Yes, for example, not feeding a goldfish for weeks creates a set of conditions sufficient for its death, but these conditions are not necessary for its death because it can die in other ways.
Theoretical explanation
Theories or hypotheses that try to explain why something is the way it is, why somethign is the case, or why something happened
When is an explanatry theory worthless ?
When it is not testable
When is a theory testable ?
if it predicts something other than what it was introduced to explain
Suppose your electric clock stops each time you touch it. One theory to explain this event is that there is an electrical short in the clock’s wiring. Another theory is that an invisible, undetectable demon causes the clock to stop. The wiring theory predicts that if the wiring is repaired, the clock will no longer shut off when touched. So it is testable—there is something that the theory predicts other than the obvious fact that the clock will stop when you touch it.
What does it mean for a theory to have more scope?
A theory with scope is one that explains or predicts phenomena other than that which it was introduced to explain.
: What does simplicity mean in the context of evaluating theories?
Simplicity refers to the characteristic of a theory that makes the fewest assumptions. Other things being equal, the best theory is the simplest one, as it is more likely to be accurate and easier to understand.
What is the criterion of conservatism in evaluating theories?
Conservative theory is one that fits with our established beliefs
What does “fruitfulness” mean in the context of evaluating theories?
Fruitfulness refers to a theory’s ability to successfully predict previously unknown phenomena. Theories that yield new insights and open up new areas of research and discovery are considered more credible and more likely to be true.
make novel predicitons
What are the common categories of explanations and their meanings?
4
Teleological: Explains something in terms of purpose/function/plan. Example: “I am doing this in order to do this.”
Interpretive: Explains what something means, gives understanding. Example: “Explain the difference between two things.”
Procedural: Answering a how question. Example: “This happened because this action was performed.”
Theoretical: A theory or hypothesis that tries to explain why something is the way it is, why something is the case, or why something happened. Example: “Why does our blood circulate? Because the heart beats.”
What do you do before applying the criteria of adequacy
We must make sure that the theory meets the minimum requirements for consistency
Internal and external consistency (criteria of adequacy)
Internal consistency : Free of contradictions (ex; Galileo’s refutation of Aristotle’s theory of motion (Galileo showed that the theory implied two contradictory things)
External consistency : Fully accounts for the observable data. (ex; Einstein’s theory of gravity explains everything Newton’s does, but also accounts for the apparent anomaly in the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit around the Sun
Name the 5 criterias of adequacy
- Testability
- Fruitfulness
- Scope
- Simplicity
- Conservatism
Name the 4 inductive argument types
Enumerative induction
Argument by analogy
Causal argument
Inference to the best explanation
Argument by analogy
because two or more things are similar in several respects, they must be similar in some further respect
Humans can move about, solve mathematical equations, win chess games, and feel pain.Robots are like humans in that they can move about, solve mathematical equations, and win chess games.Therefore, it’s probable that robots can also feel pain.
