Terms Flashcards
Hemispheres
The brain has two hemispheres, the left controls the right side of the body, the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body
Corpus Callosum
Bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres, messages move from one side of the brain to the other
Left
Specializes in language,
Right Hemisphere
Appears to specialize in more widespread processing involving perception, visualization, spatial perception, recognition of patterns, faces, emotions, melodies, and expression of emotion
Cerebral Cortex “Gray Matter”
Outer layer of the brain, the tissue is folded in on itself, the folding and wrinkling allows for more surface area of cortex to fit into the skull
Lobes
Areas of the cerebral cortex, location and primary function, each with a specialty
Frontal Lobes
Areas of the cortex located in the front of the brain, associated with reasoning, motor skills higher level cognition, and expressive language
Prefrontal Cortex
This brain region has been implicated in planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, decision making, and moderating social behavior
Motor Cortex
This area of the brain receives information from various lobes of the brain and utilizes this information to carry out body movements
Broca’s Area
Located in the lower portion of the left frontal lobe, controls motor functions involved with speech production and language comprehension
Parietal Lobes
Sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for processing sensory signals such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
Somatosensory Cortex
Part of your brain that receives and processes sensory information from the entire body
Occipital Lobes
Section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain
Temporal Lobe
Areas of the cortex located just behind the temples containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech
Wernicke’s Area
It is located in the temporal lobe on the left side of the brain and is responsible for the comprehension of speech
Brainstem
Most primitive part of the brain, Base of brain connected to the spinal cord. Controls breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness, and whether one is sleepy or awake
Medulla Oblongata “Medula”
Located at the top of the spinal cord (transition zone), controls life sustaining functions
Pons
The larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom, the bridge between cerebral hemispheres and both medulla and cerebellum. Role in several autonomic functions such as stimulating breathing and controlling sleep cycles
The Reticular Formation
Network of nerves that carry messages between parts of the brain stem (Integrating the nervous system)
-It helps regulate the intensity of pain and controls some parts of the body
-Helps people focus on useful sensory input while filtering out unnecessary stimuli
Cerebellum “Little Brain”
Helps control posture, balance, and the coordination of voluntary movements. This allows different muscle groups in the body to act together and produce coordinated fluid movement.
Thalamus
Processes and transmits movement and sensory information. Considered the sensory “relay station” of the brain, passing information to the cerebral cortex
-Receives information from all the senses (routes it to the higher brain regions)
Limbic System
Network of structures located beneath the cerebral cortex. Coordinates emotions such as fear and aggression, basic drives such as hunger and sex, and the formation of episodic memories
Hypothalamus
Connects with many other regions of the brain and is responsible for controlling hunger, thirst, emotions, body temp regulation, and circadian rhythm.
Also controls the pituitary glands by secreting hormones
Hippocampus
The hippocampus plays a critical role in the formation, organization, and storage of new memories as well as connecting certain sensations and emotions to these memories
Neuroscience “Brain Researchers”
Neuroscience is an interdisciplinary brain science that works closely with other disciplines
-Researchers might look into brain activity with different tools
Brain Autopsy
Examination of brain tissue after death is currently only definitive way to diagnose the specific neurodegererative disorder of an individual
Lesioning Studies
Humans with brain lesions are often the subjects of human research with the goal of establishing the function of the area where their lesion occurred
Prefrontal Lobotomy
Operation that removes parts of the brain to control behavior, disconnects the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain
Hemispherectomy
Brain surgery used to treat behavioral disorders or illnesses, removal of one of the halves of the brain
-Control seizures in people who have epilepsy
Deep Brain Stimulation
Newer, less invasive method of altering the brain to eliminate behavioral symptoms
-Surgeon creates an opening in the skull then carefully inserts an electrode through the opening to stimulate a specific area. Has treated epilepsy, tourettes, parkinsons, etc.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Noninvasive technique that alters brain activity (treats depression)
Brain Scanning
Not used to treat disorders rather they provide information about the structure of the brain or about the activity of the brain
X-rays
Primarily shoe bones and other solid structures, especially useful when a person has broken bones (skull fractures)
-Does not show details of the soft tissue in the body, not a complete evaluation
Electroencephalograph
Measurement of the electrical activity of the brain by recording from electrodes placed on the scalp
-Electrical output forms waves that may indicate things such as stages of sleep, seizures, and even tumors
Computer Tomography (CT or CAT Scan)
Two-dimensional x-ray photographs from different angles that are used to create three-dimensional representations of organs.
-Reveals gross features of the brain
-Identifies muscle or bone disorders, tumor, or blood clots
Images are used to construct overall images of the brain (relatively low resolution)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI SCan)
Brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce three dimensional detailed images of the brain
-Machine uses energy to construct image
-Better resolution than CAT scan
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Imaging technique used to measure the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain by extremely sensitive devices
-Brain sends signals that generate magnetic fields (activity of neurons is the activity of the brain)
Functional MRI
Measuring brain activity by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity(more oxygen=increases to active area)
Position Emission Tomography (PET Scan)
Uses trace amounts of short-lived radioactive material to map functional processes in the brain (glucose)
- Used to measure the total amount of energy that the brain uses during a particular activity
Neuroplasticity
The ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to experience and even trauma
Functional plasticity
The brain’s ability to move functions from a damaged area of the brain to other undamaged areas
Structural plasticity
The brain’s ability to actually change its physical structure as a result of learning
“Split Brain”
Two hemispheres of the brain communicate extensively through the corpus callosum, when the hemispheres of the brain can’t communicate each side of the brain seems to act independently “split”, without awareness of the other
Nervous System
Body’s communication network that consists of all nerve cells
-Allows organisms to sense, organize, and react to information in the environment
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Coordinates the actions and interactions of the brain & spinal cord, body’s main control system
-Largest part of the nervous system
-The spinal cord is an information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system to the brain
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Includes the sensory nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
- PNS connects the CNS to the organs, limbs, and skin
Motor Pathway
Division of the PNS that signals fro brain to muscles/glands
Sensory Pathway
Division of the PNS that transmits signals from receptors to the brain
Somatic Nervous System
Includes the nerves that transmit signals from your rain to the skeletal muscles to allow voluntary movement
Sensory Neurons “Afferent Neurons”
Carry information from the nerves to the central nervous system
- Allows us to take in sensory information and sent it to the brain and spinal cord
Motor Neurons “Efferent Neurons”
Carry information from the brain and spinal cord to muscle fibers throughout the body
Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Reflex Arc
Signal is sent from a sensory organ to the spinal cord, which processes the information instead of passing it on to the brain
Autonomic Nervous System
Regulates involuntary and unconscious actions
-Breathing, blood pumping, digestion, etc.
-Can be overridden but are involuntary for the most part
Sympathetic Nervous System
Emergency response system, if something alarms, enrages or changes you
-“Fight, Flight, or Freeze”
- Slows digestion, cools you down with perspiration, dumps glucose by raising blood sugar, etc.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Functions to calm the person “Rest & Digest”
- Reduces body arousal, energy, decreases blood sugar, slows down blood flow, etc
Neuron “Nerve Cell”
Specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages with electrochemical signals
- Chemicals stimulate the neuron
- The neuron creates electricity
- The neuron releases chemicals
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals in the brain that carry messages from one neuron to another
-There are as many as 100 neurotransmitters and new ones are still being discorvered.
Glial Cells
Cells that provide physical support for the neurons to grow on and around (glue)
- 90% if the brain is composed of glial cells
Dendrites “Antenna”
Part of neuron, branch-like extensions that receives electrical messages from other cells
Receptor Sites
Receive signals, receptor sites are the lock where the neurotransmitter molecule fits into
Soma “Life Support”
The cell body of the neuron responsible to maintain the cell and keep the neuron function (nucleus included)
Axon “Talker”
Fiber that extends from the cell body to the terminal endings its job is to carry messages out to other cells
Myelin Sheath
Layer of fatty substance produced by certain glial cells, wraps around the axon to protect the nerve fiber from damage
- Insulating sheath speeds up the neural message
Axon Terminals
Tips at the end of the axon
-Sent signals to other neurons
Synapse “Contact Point”
Meeting point between neurons
-Is a gap at the end of the terminal button
Synaptic Vesicles
Stores various neurotransmitters (chemicals) that are released at the synapse
Neural Transmission
Process by which information travels through a neuron
-Each neuron receives an impulse and must pass it on to the not neuron and make sure the correct impulse continue on its path
Electrochemically
Neurons send messages electrochemically
-The electrical part happens within the neuron
-The chemical part takes place between the neurons (synapse)
Neurotansmitter
Chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and balances signals between neurons, or nerve cells, and other cells in the body
-Neurotransmitters act like a key, and the receptor sites act like a lock. It takes the right key to open specific locks
Receptore Sites
Chemicals go to receptor sites on the dentdrite (lock and key)
Positively Charged Sodium Ions
The receptor ste will trigger the axon to let in positively charged sodium ions
Step 3. Selectively Permeable Membrane
the cell membrane of the neuron allows certain ions to pass through while preventing or restricting other ions from moving
Step 4. “Action Potential Firing”
The reaction between positive ions and the negative charged axon create an electrical charge
“Action Potential Firing”: A neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body (explosion of electrical activity)
-If stimulation isn’t strong enough, your neuron doesn’t fire
Step 5
The charge hits the axon terminals and tells them to release a chemical (neurotransmitters)
Step 6
The chemicals will cross the synaptic gap and stimulate the dendrites, and the signal continues
Step 7. Reuptake
After the neurotransmitters stimulate the receptors on the receiving neuron, the chemicals are taken back up into the sending neuron to be used again
-In other cases, an enzyme destroys the neurotransmitter, breaking it down to be used elsewhere in the brain
Threshold
Level of stimulation that a cell body (soma) uses to decide whether to tell the axon to create electricity
Resting State/Resting Period
There is a difference between the charges outside of the cell and inside of the cell (neuron s charged and ready to fire/polarized)
-Waiting for threshold to be reached
Action Potential
An action potential is part of the process that occurs during the firing of a neuron
-During the action potential, part of the neural membrane opens to allow positively charged ions inside the cell and negatively charged ions out.
All-or-None Principle
When a neuron fires it is at full strength or not at all, strength of action potential is constant
-The neuron does not reach the threshold or a full action potential is fired
Refractory Period
Period of time during which a cell is incapable of repeating an action potential (recovery time)
-Occurs after an action potential and generally lasts one millisecond
-While the neuron is busy returning everything to normal, it doesn’t respond to an incoming stimuli
Excitatory Neurotransmitters
They excite connecting neurons and cause them to fire, more action potentials are triggered
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
Inhibit (prevent) neurons from firing
Acetylcholine “Movement & Memory” (ACh)
Principal neurotransmitter involved in thought, learning and memory. In the body, it is involved in activating muscle action.
-Excitatory
-First neurotransmitter discovered
Serotonin “Mood”
Connected to feelings of well-being and happiness (regulation of emotion). It regulates the sleep cycle along with melatonin, and also regulates intestinal movements
-Inhibitory
-Serotonin is a major part of many popular drug treatments for depression and anxiety
Dopamine “Reward”
“Pleasure Chemical of the Brain” Released into the pleasure centers of the brain, related to reward and motivation (learning)
-Inhibitory
-It is also associated with addiction, movement, and motivation
-Person will repeat behaviors that lead to the release of dopamine
Norepinephrine “Fight or Flight”
Associated with response to danger, attention & responding action in the brain
-Excitatory
-Its effect in the body is to contact blood vessels to increase blood flow
GABA “Calming”
Inhibitory transmitter that slows things down, calming the central nervous system “natural tranquilizer”, GABA also contributes to motor control and vision
-Inhibitory
-GABA increases sleepiness an decreases anxiety alertness, memory, and muscle tension
Glutamate “Memory”
Major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved with most normal operations of the brain including, thinking, long-term memory, and learning
-Excitatory
-Most common neurotransmitter in the brain
Endorphins “Euphoria”
Relieve pain and stress, “Brain’s natural aspirin”, feelings of pleasure/euphoria
-Inhibitory
-Released in the brain during exercise, excitement, pain, and sexual activity, and produce a feeling of well-being or even euphoria
Nature (Genes)
All of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are— from our physical appearance to out personality characteristics
Nurture (Environment)
Refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are
-Early childhood experiences
-How we were raised
-Social relationships
-Our surrounding culture
-Anything that can have an influence on development that does not come from within a person
Biological Psychology
Tends to stress the importance of genetics and biological influences (Nature)
-Perspective has grown considerably in recent years as the technology used to study the brain and nervous system has advanced
Heredity
The sum of all biological processes by which particular characteristic are transmitted from parents to their offspring (one generation to the next)
Genes “Little Instructions”
Segments of DNA molecules are the functional units of heredity, make up the body’s blueprint
-We have about 24,00 genes
-Most of the genes are the same between people
-A small percentage of our genes are different from others
Epigentics
Study of heritable changes in gene expression (active versus inactive genes). Study of changes in gene expression due to non genetic causes
-Methylation- process by which genes turn off due to protein interaction
Sensitive Period
a particular environment is important at a particular time in life for the genetic information to be expressed as behaviors or physical characteristics
Monozygotic Twins “Identical”
Result from a single infertilized egg that splits that splits in two, are genetically identical
Dizygotic Twins “Fraternal:
Develop from two zygotes and share 50% of their DNA
Heritability
The extent to which differences in the appearance of a trait across several people can be accounted for in their genes
-Heritability never can be applied to an individual only groups of people
Evolutionary Psychology
Study how natural selection favored behaviors that contributed to survival and the spread of our ancestors’ genes, and may currently contribute to our survival into the next generation
-It combines the science of psychology with the study of biology
