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SHHS Edexcel Year 12 Geography > Tectonics > Flashcards

Tectonics Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a hazard ?

A

A perceived natural or geophysical event that has the potential to threaten both life and property.

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2
Q

<p>When was the Bam (Southern Iran) earthquake?</p>

A

<p>January 2003 at 05:26 AM</p>

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3
Q

<p>What is an oceanic fracture zone (OFZ)?</p>

A

<p>A belt of activity through the oceans along the mid-ocean ridges, coming ashore in Africa, the red sea, the dead sea rift and California. </p>

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4
Q

<p>What is the continental fracture zone (CFZ)?</p>

A

<p>A belt of activity following the mountain ranges from Spain, via the Alps, to the Middle East, the Himalayas to the East Indies and then circumscribing the Pacific. </p>

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5
Q

<p>What are the three main qualities of a Tsunami?</p>

A

<p>Long wavelengths, low amplitude and fast velocities </p>

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6
Q

<p>Fact file about the Icelandic Volcano (Eyjafallajallajokul) </p>

A

<p>-April 15th 2010

- High profile (impacts on the air movement) but a relatively small eruption.
- No direct deaths
- Massive ash plume generated affected much of Europe stretching as far as Italy. </p>

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7
Q

<p><p>What are earthquakes forecasts currently based on?</p></p>

A

<p><p>They are based on data and evidence gathered through global seismic monitoring networks, as well as from historical records.</p></p>

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8
Q

<p><p>State 3 ways vulnerability is different in a developing country.</p></p>

A

<p><p>1. People only have access to limited resources.

2. Government does not prioritise them.
3. They are economically and politically 'on edge'. People rely on government aid despite the impact this may have on families.</p></p>

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9
Q

<p><p>How have the natural-hazard trends developed since 1960?</p></p>

A

<p><p>1. Total number of recorded hazards increased

2. Number of deaths decreased in recent times
3. Total number of affected people increased
4. Economic costs increased significantly</p></p>

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10
Q

<p><p>Referring to the Swiss Cheese Model, suggest how hazard and disaster risk can be reduced.</p></p>

A

<p><p>1) Reducing the number of holes in each layer (the number of systematic weaknesses)
2)Reducing the size of he holes in each layer.</p></p>

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11
Q

<p><p> What is a Subduction Zone? </p></p>

A

<p><p>broad areas where two plates are moving together, the denser oceanic plate descending beneath the continental plate. </p></p>

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12
Q

<p><p>What is the Benioff Zone?</p></p>

A

<p><p>The Benioff zone is an area of seismicity corresponding with the slab being thrust downwards in the subduction zone. </p></p>

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13
Q

<p>Which plate boundary generates the largest most damaging earthquakes?</p>

A

<p>Convergent (two plates moving together).</p>

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14
Q

<p><p>What are the characteristics of a tectonic mega-disaster?</p></p>

A

<p><p>1. Large-scale in either spatial terms or economic and human impacts

2. Difficult to manage impacts
3. International support needed both immediately and during long-term recovery</p></p>

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15
Q

<p><p>What are tectonic mega-events often classified as?</p></p>

A

<p><p>HILP - high impact, low probability </p></p>

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16
Q

<p><p>What is Paleomagnetism?</p></p>

A

<p><p>Paleomagnetism results from the zone of magma 'locking in' the Earth's magnetic polarity when it cools</p></p>

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17
Q

<p><p>What is the measurement of resilience?</p></p>

A

<p><p>The ability to survive disruptions to their livelihood and normal well being, despite the impact of the natural disaster.</p></p>

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18
Q

<p><p>What are the 4 features of development that relate to vulnerability?</p></p>

A

<p><p>1. Economic.

2. Social.
3. Environmental.
4. Political</p></p>

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19
Q

<p><p>What is the economic component to development?</p></p>

A

<p><p>The improvement of wealth can help the quality of life,.</p></p>

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20
Q

<p><p>What is the social component to development?</p></p>

A

<p><p>The improvement of health, education, housing and employment opportunities.</p></p>

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21
Q

<p><p>What is the environmental component to development?</p></p>

A

<p><p>The improvement of resource usage and distribution, now and for in the future.</p></p>

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22
Q

<p><p>What is the political component to development?</p></p>

A

<p><p>The improvement to human rights, political freedom and democracy.</p></p>

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23
Q

<p><p>Define the term inequality.</p></p>

A

<p><p>Unfair situation of resources. It may also be used when people, nations and non-state players have different levels of authority. </p></p>

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24
Q

<p><p>Why is earthquake forecasting very important?</p></p>

A

<p><p>It can encourage governments to enforce better building regulations in areas of high stress, or create improved evacuation procedures in areas of high risk.</p></p>

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25
Q

<p><p>How would it be possible to make accurate predictions of when and where earthquakes will happen?</p></p>

A

<p><p>Identifying a diagnostic precursor - a characteristic pattern of seismic activity or some other physical, chemical or biological change, which would indicate a high probability of an earthquake happening in a small window of space and time.
However, this method has not yet been successful. </p></p>

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26
Q

<p><p>How are geophysicists trying to improve prediction of tectonic hazards? </p></p>

A

<p><p>Calculating the underground movement of magma. Their models try o predict where the plates are running together with the most stresses, often a tell-tale sign of where an earthquake might hit.
This method still needs considerable refinement as the link between earthquakes and underground mantle flows are hard to model. </p></p>

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27
Q

<p>What are convection currents?</p>

A

<p>.Convection currents in the mantle move around due to the heat risen. These convection currents operate as cells. </p>

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28
Q

<p><p>What does the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS) measure and on what scale?</p></p>

A

<p><p>The MMS measures the seismic moment of an earthquake such as the magnitude, the fault slip and the physical area affected.</p></p>

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29
Q

<p>How did the Icelandic Volcanic (2010) eruption affect car manufacturing?</p>

A

<p>-Disrupted it
-Nissan plant in Japan had to stop production of the Cube, Murano SUV and Rogue crossover models due to running out of a critical sensor produced in Iceland.
-Disrupted air freight which is only used for small quantity of high-value but vital electronic components with few alternate suppliers.
</p>

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30
Q

<p><p>What does the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) measure and on what scale?</p></p>

A

<p><p>The VEI is calculated by the volume of the earthquakes products, the height of the eruption clouds and qualitative observations.</p></p>

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31
Q

<p>Fact file about the Tohoku Tsunami, Japan</p>

A

<p>-Magnitude 9.0
-March 2011
-Earthquake led to a tsunami, caused destruction along Eastern coast of Japan (Tohoku region) including the Fukushima region.
-Largest earthquake recorded in Japan
-High profile because of the nuclear impact
-15,7496 dead (63% aged 60 and over); 3962 missing
</p>

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32
Q

<p>Impacts of the Icelandic Volcano (2010) on the transport of perishable goods</p>

A

<p>-Producers of flowers, fruit and vegetables in African countries e.g. Kenya, Zambia and Ghana.

- Delays in transportation meant large quantities pf fast0perishing food rotted leading to a loss for producers.
- The World Bank estimated that in total, African countries may have lost US$65 mil because of that ..</p>

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33
Q

<p>Where do 90% of Tsunamis occur?</p>

A

<p>The Pacific Basin</p>

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34
Q

<p>What is the risk-poverty nexus?</p>

A

<p>It shows the inequalities people face in relation to the disaster risk levels.</p>

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35
Q

<p>Name four primary impacts of volcanoes</p>

A

<p>acid rain, pyroclastic flow, lava flow and eruption clouds</p>

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36
Q

<p>What is the continental fracture zone?</p>

A

<p>A belt of activity following the mountain ranges from Spain, via the Alps, to the Middle East, the Himalayas to the East Indies and then circumscribing the Pacific. </p>

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37
Q

<p>What is a seismic hazard?</p>

A

<p>Generated when rocks within 700km of the earths surface come under such stress that they break and become displaced.</p>

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38
Q

<p>What is a volcanic hazard?</p>

A

<p>Associated with eruption events. </p>

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39
Q

<p>What is an intra-plate earthquakes?</p>

A

<p>These occur in the middle or interior of tectonic plates and are much rarer than boundary earthquakes. </p>

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40
Q

<p>What is a volcano?</p>

A

<p>A landform that develops around a weakness in the Earths crust from which molten magma, volcanic rock, and gases are ejected or extruded.</p>

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41
Q

<p>What is the divergent plate boundary and their distribution?</p>

A

<p>Plates moving apart, most clearly displayed at mid ocean ridges. At these locations there are large numbers of shallow focus and generally low magnitude earthquake events. Most are submarine. </p>

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42
Q

<p>What is a convergent plate boundary and its distribution? </p>

A

<p>Plates moving together, actively deforming collision locations with plate material melting in the mantle, causing frequent earthquakes and volcanos. </p>

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43
Q

<p>What is the conservative plate boundary and the distribution?</p>

A

<p>One plate sliding against another, the relative movement is horizontal. Lithosphere is neither created or sub-ducted, while conservative margins do not result in volcanic activity, they are the sites of extensive shallow focus earthquakes . </p>

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44
Q

<p>Which framework is used for tectonic hazard management?</p>

A

<p>1) Modifying the event

2) Modifying vulnerability and resilience (at an individual, community and country scale)
3) Modifying the loss</p>

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45
Q

<p>What is JIT?</p>

A

<p>Just-in-time business model for technology and industry. Things ordered to arrive just in time to avoid the need for storage</p>

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46
Q

<p>What is a multiple-hazard zone?</p>

A

<p>A place where a number of physical hazards combine to create an increased level of risk. Also called disaster hotspots e.g. the Philippines and California</p>

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47
Q

<p>Which plate boundary generates the largest most damaging earthquakes.</p>

A

<p>Convergent (two plates moving together).</p>

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48
Q

<p>Where does sea floor spreading occur?</p>

A

<p>Divergent boundaries under the oceans </p>

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49
Q

<p>what are the most damaging events?

| </p>

A

<p>shallow focus with a hypocentre of less that 40km</p>

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50
Q

<p>what is a seismometer?</p>

A

<p>a device which measures the amount of ground shaking during an earthquake</p>

51
Q

<p>what is soil liquefaction?</p>

A

<p>the process by which water saturated material can temporarily lose normal strength and behave like a liquid under the pressure of strong shaking</p>

52
Q

<p>what are primary/ P waves?</p>

A

<p>vibrations caused by compression. they spread quickly from the fault at a rate of about 8KM/ sec</p>

53
Q

<p>what are secondary/ S waves?</p>

A

<p>moves more slowly however at around 4KM/ sec. they vibrate at right angles to the direction of travel and cannot travel through liquids</p>

54
Q

Define intensity.

A

a measure of the ground shaking. it is the ground shaking that causes building damage and collapses and the loss of life from the hazard

55
Q

Define epicentre.

A

the location on the earths surface that is directly above the earthquakes focus eg: the point where an earthquake originates

56
Q

Define magnitude.

A

its related to the amount of movement or displacement in the fault which is in turn a measure of energy release.

57
Q

<p>Define magnitude</p>

A

<p>its related to the amount of movement or displacement in the fault which is in turn a measure of energy release. </p>

58
Q

<p>How are other scientists trying to predict earthquakes?</p>

A

<p>They are predicting earthquakes through animal behaviours, changes in radon emissions and electromagnetic variation, but with very little success.</p>

59
Q

<p>What are the 4 physical factors which affect response?</p>

A

<p>1. Geophysical accessibility of location/region

2. Type of hazard
3. Topography of region
4. Climate (e.g. monsoon rain causes access problems)</p>

60
Q

<p>What are the 5 stages within the hazard management cycle?</p>

A

<p>1. Modifying the cause of event (pre-disaster)

2. Hazardous event
3. Search, rescue and care
4. Relief and rehabilitation period ( days to weeks)
5. Reconstruction (weeks to years)</p>

61
Q

<p>How are active sub-duction zones characterised?</p>

A

<p>By magmatic activity, a mountain belt of with thick continental crust, a narrow continental shelf and active seismicity. </p>

62
Q

<p>How is the distribution of volcanos controlled?</p>

A

<p>By plate tectonics.</p>

63
Q

<p>What is slab pull?</p>

A

<p>Slab pull is the portion of motion of a tectonic plate that can be accounted for by its subduction. Plate motion is partly driven by the weight of cold, dense plates sinking into the mantle at trenches. This force and slab suction account for almost all of the force driving plate tectonics.</p>

64
Q

<p>Define the term inequality.</p>

A

<p>This usually refers to an unfair situation or distribution of resources. This term can also be used when people or nations have different levels of authority.</p>

65
Q

<p>State 3 ways risk vulnerability impacts a developing country.</p>

A

<p>1. People only have limited access to resources.

2. They have a low priority from the government.
3. They are politically and economically 'on edge' so rely on the government even if it impacts their family negatively. </p>

66
Q

<p>Tohoku tsunami's (2011) impact on attitudes towards nuclear energy</p>

A

<p>-Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power pant located on the E.coast of Honshu
-Tsunami disabled power supple and cooling of 3 reactors causing high radioactive releases.
-Contaminated water leaked from the plant into the Pacific and into fishing grounds.
-Effects on the accident on energy security weren't only restricted to Japan.
</p>

67
Q

<p>Tohoku tsunami (2011) impacts on LNG (liquefied natural gas) prices </p>

A

<p>-Worldwide availability and affordability affected by Japan's increased demand.
-Had the biggest impact on the Asian market where the rates of increasing energy consumption was the highest.</p>

68
Q

<p>What is the public acceptability of nuclear power and rising costs (tohoku tsunami 2011)</p>

A

<p>-Countries e.g. Germany and Italy immediately shutdown some of their nuclear reactors or abandon plans to build one.
-Accident contributed to increasing capital costs with construction of new nuclear reactors because of additional safety measures. </p>

69
Q

<p>Name an example of a subduction zone </p>

A

<p>The 2500-mile-long Alaska/Aleutian subduction zone stretches from Russia in the east to Alaska in the west. Here, the Pacific Plate and the North American plate are moving towards one another at a rate of 6-7 centimetres (or 2-3 inches) per year. O.E. </p>

70
Q

<p>How can different hazard events be modified?</p>

A

<p>Earthquakes: seismic activity cannot be controlled so micro or macro protection can be used - strengthening hospitals, police stations, pipelines, schools and factories.
Tsunamis: Replanting the coasts or 'buffer zones' such as mangroves to dissipate wave energy.
Volcanoes: Diverting or chilling the lava flows e.g 1973 Heimaey eruption, Icelanders sprayed seawater on the flows. </p>

71
Q

<p>What is asset inequality?</p>

A

<p>This relates to housing and security as well as good and services in trading communities.</p>

72
Q

<p>What is inequality of entitlements?</p>

A

<p>This refers to the unequal access of public services and welfare systems.</p>

73
Q

<p>Why do some mega-cities have low hazard resilience? </p>

A

<p>1. High population density leads to rapid destruction and high loss of life

2. Rapid growth and inadequate planning; illegal settlements in hazardous areas
3. Ecological imbalance as a result of rapid urbanisation e.g. deforestation</p>

74
Q

<p>What is tephra?</p>

A

<p>Rock fragments ejected from an erupting volcano into the atmosphere.</p>

75
Q

<p>Name an example of a subduction zone </p>

A

<p>The 2500-mile-long Alaska/Aleutian subduction zone stretches from Russia in the east to Alaska in the west. Here, the Pacific Plate and the North American plate are moving towards one another at a rate of 6-7 centimeters (or 2-3 inches) per year. O.E. </p>

76
Q

<p>Name examples of volcanic gases.</p>

A

<p>Water vapour, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen and carbon monoxide.</p>

77
Q

<p>What are scattered earthquakes in continental interiors?</p>

A

<p>A small minority of earthquakes occurring along old fault lines and the hazard is associated with the reactivation of this weakness.</p>

78
Q

<p>What is the lithosphere?</p>

A

<p>The rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle.</p>

79
Q

<p>What leads to risk reduction? (risk disk)</p>

A 
<p>Disaster preparedness
Disaster response
Disaster recovery
Disaster mitigation
Development
Adaptation to climate change</p>
80
Q

<p>What magnitude was the Bam 2003 earthquake?</p>

A

<p>Magnitude 6.6</p>

81
Q

<p>What depth was the Bam 2003 earthquake?</p>

A

<p>The earthquake was shallow at a depth of 7km below the surface.</p>

82
Q

<p>What are social impacts of the Bam 2003 earthquake?</p>

A

<p>1. 26,000 people were killed

2. 28% of heath professionals killed, others incapable of giving care.
3. Hypothermia killed the most people.</p>

83
Q

<p>What are environmental impacts of the Bam 2003 earthquake?</p>

A

<p>1. 3 hospitals were destroyed

2. Rubble from debris caused search and rescue to suffer
3. 2400 year old buildings were destroyed due to the adobe nature of building roofs. </p>

84
Q

<p>What is political inequality?</p>

A

<p>This is the unequal capacities for political agencies by different groups and individuals in society.</p>

85
Q

<p>What are the causes of the impacts of the Bam 2003 earthquake?</p>

A

<p>1. Iranian seismic building code hadn't been enforced

| 2. Termite activity damaged previous wooden structures</p>

86
Q

<p>When was the Nepal (Italy) earthquake?</p>

A

<p>25th April 2015</p>

87
Q

<p>What magnitude was the Nepal 2015 earthquake?</p>

A

<p>Magnitude 7.8</p>

88
Q

<p>What was the population of Nepal prior to the 2015 earthquake?</p>

A

<p>26.5 million</p>

89
Q

<p>What are the social impacts of the Nepal 2015 earthquake?</p>

A

<p>1. 9000 died.

| 2. 22,000 left seriously injured.</p>

90
Q

<p>What are environmental impacts of the Nepal 2015 earthquake?</p>

A

<p>1. Over 1/2 a million houses collapsed or were seriously damaged. </p>

91
Q

<p>What were the root causes of the severe impacts produced by the Nepal earthquake of 2015?</p>

A

<p>1. Nepal is a multiple-hazard zone: landslides, debris, floods, earthquakes are all common.

2. 85% of the population is rural.
3. The population was already vulnerable- poor households and excluded groups mean housing is often slum style and does not follow the building code.
4. Low level development means local earthquake science is outdated.</p>

92
Q

<p>The impact of a Tsunami depends on a number of physical and human impacts, name three</p>

A 
<p>1. the duration of the event
2. the wave amplitude
3. the physical geography of the coast
4. the degree of costal ecosystem buffer
5. the timing of the event
6. the degree of costal development
</p>
93
Q

<p>What is the typical wavelength of a Tsunami</p>

A

<p>150-1000km</p>

94
Q

<p>Which plate boundaries do Tsunamis occur at?</p>

A

<p>Convergent boundaries</p>

95
Q

<p>What is social status inequality?</p>

A

<p>This is linked to space (informal settlements). It includes the ability of individuals and groups to secure income and access to services.</p>

96
Q

<p>How can vulnerability and resilience be modified?</p>

A

<p>1) Prediction, forecasting and warnings

2) Improvements in community preparedness
3) Working with groups and individuals to change behaviours.</p>

97
Q

Where do we find hotspot volcanoes?

A

In the middle of tectonic plates.

98
Q

On average how many volcanos erupt a year?

A

50.

99
Q

Roughly, how many active volcanos are throughout the world?

A

500.

100
Q

What are the human factors which effect response?

A
  • Number of people involved in incident
  • Degree of community preparedness
  • Technological resources
  • Scientific understanding and expertise
  • Education and training
  • Economic wealth
  • Level of country development
  • Infrastructure
  • Social and political framework
101
Q

Explain stage 1 of the Hazard Management Cycle.

A

(Pre - disaster) - Quality of life is normal before a disaster strikes; people do their best to prevent and prepare for such events happening, for example by educating the public on how to act when disaster strikes, preparing supplies, putting medical teams on standby and so on.

102
Q

Explain the term Rehabilitation from the Hazard Management Cycle.

A

Groups (for example, the government) try to return the stage of things back to normal, by providing food, water and shelter to those who are without basic needs.

103
Q

Name two differences between oceanic and continental crust

A

Continental = thicker and granite. Oceanic = thin and basalt.

104
Q

Why are disaster statistics controversial?

A
  1. Depends if indirect, secondary deaths are counted
  2. Events in remote places are often under-recorded
  3. Declaration of deaths and casualties could be subject to political bias
  4. Statistics are difficult to collect
  5. Time-trend analysis is difficult, especially after a cluster of mega-disasters
105
Q

What is the economic governance interaction?

A

It includes the decision making that has major implications for equity, poverty and people’s quality of life.

106
Q

How can losses be modified?

A

Insurance to cover the cost of earthquake damage. Seismologists work with computer risk analysts to help the insurance industry calculate premiums and risk.

107
Q

What are the multiple waves in a Tsunami called?

A

A wave train

108
Q

California (disaster hotspot) location

A
  • Less violent Earthquakes

- Economy size of HIC

109
Q

California (disaster hotspot) geophysical hazards- volcanoes

A

-Rarely in N. California which is part of the cascades subduction zone (not really on the coast)

109
Q

When were the New Zealand earthquakes?

A

September 2010 and February 2011.

110
Q

What is a disaster ?

A

The realisation of a hazard when it causes a significant impact on a vulnerable population.

110
Q

What was the magnitude of the New Zealand 2010 and 2011 earthquakes?

A 
2010= magnitude 7.1  
2011= magnitude 6.3
111
Q

What does Deggs model show ?

A

The interaction between hazards , disaster and human vulnerability. A disaster can only occur when a vulnerable population is exposed to a hazard.

112
Q

What affects the risk to a hazard ?

A 
Events are unpredictable
There's a lack of alternatives
The risk from dynamic hazards changes all the time 
Cost - benefit 
Russian roulette reaction
113
Q

What is the hazard risk formula

A

Risk= hazard x exposure x vulnerability

manageability

114
Q

What is resilience ?

A

Resilience is also about the ability to spring back from a hazard event or disaster shock.

115
Q

What are the main headings in the pressure and release model ?

A 
Root causes 
Dynamic pressures 
Unsafe conditions
Disaster 
Natural hazards
116
Q

What comes under root causes

A 
Limited access to :
Power 
Structures
Resources 
Ideologies:
political systems 
economic systems
117
Q

What comes under dynamic pressures

A 
Lack of 
Appropriate skills
Training 
Local investment 
press freedom 
Ethical standards in public life 
Macro forces 
rapid population change 
rapid urbanisation 
Deforestation 
Arms expenditure 
Debt repayment schedules
118
Q

What comes under unsafe conditions

A

Fragile physical environment
Fragile local economy
Vulnerable society
Public actions

119
Q

What are natural hazards

A 
volcanic eruptions 
earthquakes 
flooding 
drought 
storms 
Landslides
pests and diseases
120
Q

Which hazard has greater impacts ?

A

the impacts of earthquakes are generally greater than volcanoes. the concentration of volcanoes in relatively narrow belts means only a small proportion of land is close to the volcano as well as a very small proportion of the human population.

121
Q

Economic impacts are proportional to ….

A

to the land area exposed to the relevant hazard.

122
Q

The context economic impacts is

A

level of development
insured v non insured losses
total numbers of ppl affected and the speed of economic recovery
degree of urbanisation linked to land values and interdependency
absolute v relative impacts on GDP - higher relative impacts are worse

SHHS Edexcel Year 12 Geography (9 decks)

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