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Geomorphology > Tectonic structures > Flashcards

Tectonic structures Flashcards

1
Q

define time

A

the age of the earth and therefore the rocks

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2
Q

what is the time interval for catastrophism

A

very short time interval

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3
Q

what is the time interval for uniformitarianism

A

medium length (longer than catastrophism but less than actualism)

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4
Q

what is the time interval for actualism

A

very long time period

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5
Q

what is actualism

A

a geological method that assumes current causes can explain past events that’s based on the idea that the same natural laws and processes that operate today have also operated in the past

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6
Q

how does actualism differ from uniformitarianism

A

actualism acknowledges that Earth’s history includes periods of abrupt change, while uniformitarianism assumes that changes are gradual

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7
Q

how is responsible for the THREE principles for sedimentary rocks

A

Nicholas Steno

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8
Q

why is Nicholas Steno important

A

formed the three principles for sedimentary rocks

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9
Q

what are the three principles for sedimentary rocks

A

superposition
original horizontality
lateral continuity

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10
Q

describe the three principles for sedimentary rocks

A

superposition
- based on the layer of sediments were newer sediments are layered ABOVE older sediments

original horizontality
- sediments are deposited in horizontal layers and any deviations from that happened AFTER the beds were laid down

lateral continuity
- gaps between outcrops (like a river cutting a valley in half) don’t mean beds on either sides are different

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11
Q

what do each letter represent (three principles of sedimentary rocks)

A

a) superposition

b) original horizontality

c) lateral continuity

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12
Q

what is the fourth principle for sedimentary rocks added after Steno

A

cross cutting relationships

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13
Q

what is the cross cutting relationship principle for sedimentary rocks

A

before anything can disrupt a sediment profile (like folding or faulting) the profile MUST be laid down before

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14
Q

what causes increases in the structure of earth

A

mass accumulation and radioactivity

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15
Q

what allows for stratification in earth’s structure

A

based on melting of various elements (forms layers)

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16
Q

what is the core element rich in

A

iron

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17
Q

what elements is the mantle rich in

A

iron, magnesium, silicon and aluminum

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18
Q

what elements is the crust rich in

A

oxygen
oxygen seeking elements (silicon, aluminum, calcium, sodium and potassium)

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19
Q

describe the characteristics of crust

A

lightest (lightest in elements and mass) , coolest and thinness layer

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20
Q

what is the thickness range for lithosphere

A

5 to 250 km thick

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21
Q

where is the lithosphere thinnest

A

the ocean crust

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22
Q

where is the lithosphere the thickest

A

under mountains

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23
Q

what layer of earth is known as brittle shell

A

lithosphere

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24
Q

what are the layers of earth

A

inner core
outer core
mesosphere
asthenosphere
lithosphere

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25
Q

what is the thickness of the asthenosphere

A

660 km

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26
Q

what layer of earth is mechanically weak

A

asthenosphere

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27
Q

what determines how each layer of earth behaves

A
  1. composition
  2. heat
  3. pressure
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28
Q

what are the two layers of the mantle

A

lower: mesosphere

upper: asthenosphere

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29
Q

is the mesosphere weaker or stronger than the asthenosphere

A

stronger

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30
Q

what layer(s) of earth hold convection currents

A

the mesosphere AND the asthenosphere

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31
Q

what is the thickness of the outer core

A

2270 km

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32
Q

what state is the outer core

A

liquid

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33
Q

what is the state of inner core

A

solid

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34
Q

what is the thickness of the inner core

A

1216 km

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35
Q

1

A

crust

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36
Q

2

A

mantle

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37
Q

3

A

core

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38
Q

4

A

lithosphere

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39
Q

5

A

asthenosphere

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40
Q

6

A

mesosphere

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41
Q

7

A

outer core

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42
Q

8

A

inner core

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43
Q

what is the moving surface of the planet

A

plate tectonics

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44
Q

what was the original paradigm of the world

A

continents and oceans were static entities and mountains were created by an unknown forced in earth’s interior

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45
Q

how were mountains thought to have been created in original paradigm

A

for every mountain range that grew some part of the planet sank below sea level

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46
Q

why is Wegner important

A

came up with the idea that continents moved (continental drift)

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47
Q

why was Wegner ridiculed

A

because he could not provide a mechanism for his theory of continental drift

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48
Q

where was the method of continental drift found by

A

mapping the sea floor showed massive mountain ranges and volcanic activity

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49
Q

over time what was the mechanism that developed for continental drift

A

magnetic anomalies at ocean plate boundaries

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50
Q

what was geologic evidence for continental drift

A

rock units on different continents with SIMILAR structural styles line up into continuous chains if Pangea is reconstructed

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51
Q

what is palaeontologic evidence for continental drift

A

based on how fossils of different species were found on similar continents suggesting migration patterns over time before the continents separated

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52
Q

what is climatic evidence for continental drift

A

today with continents separated glaciers seem to have moved out from ocean HOWEVER we known glaciers form middle of continent before spreading in all directions

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53
Q

what is the mechanism for plate tectonic movement

A

convection currents

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54
Q

what crust subdues under another

A

the HEAVIER one ALWAYS subducts under another plate

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55
Q

what are three types of plate boundaries

A
  1. divergent
  2. convergent
  3. transform
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56
Q

describe the divergent boundary

A

When plate material on either side of the boundary spreads apart

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57
Q

describe the convergent boundary

A

when two plates move towards each other, and one plate often subducts beneath the other

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58
Q

describe the transform boundary

A

when two plates slide past each other in opposite directions

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59
Q

what type of landform forms with a divergent boundary

A

rift valley

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60
Q

what type of landform forms with a transform boundary

A

fences and rivers don’t line up anymore

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61
Q

what type of landform forms with a convergent boundary

A

mountains

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62
Q

what is deformation

A

general term that refers to all changes in original form/size of a rock body

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63
Q

where does crust deformation occur

A

along or near plate margins

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64
Q

contrast stress vs strain

A

stress
- the force applied to a given area

strain
- the visible response to stress (changes in shape or size of rock body by stress)

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65
Q

what is force

A

puts stationary objects in motion or changes motion of moving bodies

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66
Q

is strain the same as stress

A

NO

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67
Q

four types of stress

A
  1. differential stress
  2. compressional stress
  3. tensional stress
  4. shear stress
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68
Q

differential stress

A

stress applied UNEQUALLY from DIFFERENT directions

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69
Q

compressional stress

A

stress that SHORTENS a rock body

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70
Q

tensional stress

A

stress that elongates a rock body

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71
Q

shear stress

A

stress is applied in OPPOSITE directions

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72
Q

what type of plate boundary has compressional stress

A

convergent

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73
Q

what type of plate boundary has tensional stress

A

divergent

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74
Q

what type of plate boundary has shear stress

A

transform

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75
Q

1

A

tensional stress

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76
Q

2

A

compressional stress

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77
Q

3

A

shear stress

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78
Q

what causes deformation of earth’s crust

A

tectonic forces and associated stress

79
Q

how can rocks deform

A

when rocks are subjected to stresses greater than their own strength begin to deform

80
Q

what are methods of deforming rocks

A
  1. faulting
  2. folding
  3. fracturing
81
Q

how can rocks bend

A

when rocks have been subjected to the RIGHT amount of heat (not too much or else fractures)

82
Q

what are two types of deformation

A

brittle and ductile deformation

83
Q

describe brittle and ductile deformation

A

brittle
- fractures of rock that happens at low temps and pressures near the surface

ductile
- plastic breakage when temps and pressures are high

84
Q

type of deformation

A

brittle (fracture)

85
Q

type of deformation

A

fold (ductile)

86
Q

what two factors determine a rock’s deformation

A

rock type and time

87
Q

does stress over short or long time intervals cause large changes in rocks

A

small stress over LONG time

88
Q

what is an outcrop

A

places were bedrock is exposed at the surface

89
Q

how does a geologist study a region

A

identify and describe the dominant rock structures

90
Q

what is a give away for a transform plate

A

z-zag

91
Q

what must be done to determine how the rock has moved/deformed

A

determining its orientation

92
Q

how can the orientation of a rock be found

A

strike and dip method

93
Q

describe the strike and dip method for orientation of rock

A

strike
- the compass direction of the line produced by the intersection of inclined rock layer/fault with horizontal plane

dip
- angle of inclination of the surface of a rock unit measured from horizontal plane ALWAYS measured 90 degrees to strike

94
Q

folds

A

rocks bent into series of wave-like undulations during crustal deformation

95
Q

what most commonly forms folds

A

result from compressional stresses which shorten and thicken the crust

96
Q

what are the 4 parts of a fold

A
  1. limb
  2. axis
  3. plunge
  4. axial plane
97
Q

what are the limbs of a fold

A

refers to the two sides of a fold

98
Q

what is the axis of a fold

A

line drawn down crest of the fold

99
Q

what is a plunge of a fold

A

a fold axis inclined at an ANGLE

100
Q

what is the axial plane of a fold

A

imaginary surface that divides a fold as symmetrically as possible

101
Q

types of folds

A
  1. anticline
  2. syncline
  3. monoclines
102
Q

anticline fold

A

a geological formation that occurs when rock layers fold into an arch shape, with the oldest rock in the center

103
Q

syncline fold

A

a fold in the earth’s crust where rock layers curve downward, with younger layers closer to the center of the fold

104
Q

monocline fold

A

large step like folds in otherwise horizontal sedimentary strata

105
Q

what are characteristics of folds

A
  1. symmetrical
  2. asymmetrical
  3. recumbent (fold lying on sides)
  4. plunging
  5. overturned
106
Q
A

monocline

107
Q
A

anticline

108
Q
A

syncline

109
Q

are domes and basins folds or faults

A

folds

110
Q

domes

A

up-warped displacement of rock

111
Q

where is old and young rock found in domes

A

old - center
young - flanks

112
Q

basins

A

down-warped displacement of rocks

113
Q

where is young and old rock found in basins

A

young - middle
old - flanks

114
Q

where do limbs dip in basins

A

TOWARDS the middle

115
Q

where do limbs dip in domes

A

AWAY from middle

116
Q

are domes more like anticlines or synclines

A

anticlines

117
Q

are basins more like anticlines or synclines

A

synclines

118
Q

dome or basin

A

dome

119
Q

what are joints

A

fractures that result from brittle deformation with NO MOVEMENT

120
Q

what is one of the most common rock structures

A

joints

121
Q

what type of groups do joints occur in

A

parallel groups

122
Q

what are causes of joints

A
  1. columnar joints (igneous)
  2. brittle fractures due to crystal deformation
123
Q

what are columnar joints

A

a network of fractures that create a pattern of columns in igneous rocks, such as lava flows

124
Q

do rocks with less joints show more weathering

A

NO - more joints cause more weathering

125
Q

where is chemical weathering concentrated

A

along joints

126
Q

are highly jointed rocks more or less stable than less jointed rocks

A

LESS = more weathering will act on it

127
Q

faults

A

fractures in rocks along which displacement takes place (there is some kind of movement of the rock)

128
Q

what causes earthquakes

A

SUDDEN movements on faults

129
Q

what are results of faults

A
  1. fault gouges
  2. fault polish
  3. slickensides
130
Q

how are faults classified

A

by relative movement

131
Q

what types of movements can faults undergo

A
  1. horizontal
  2. vertical
  3. oblique
132
Q

types of faults

A
  1. dip slip (reverse and normal)
  2. strike-slip (transform)
133
Q

type of fault (1)

A

right lateral strike slip

134
Q

type of fault (1)

A

normal

135
Q

type of fault (2)

A

left lateral strike slip

136
Q

type of fault (2)

A

reverse

137
Q

what movement is in dip slip faults

A

movement is PARALLEL to the dip of the fault surface

138
Q

what are fault scarps

A

long low cliffs produced by up and down displacement

139
Q

describe the two walls in a dip slip fault

A

hanging wall
- rock ABOVE the fault surface

footwall
- rock BELOW the fault surface

140
Q

three major types of dip slip faults

A
  1. normal
  2. reverse
  3. thrust
141
Q

how do reverse and thrust dip slip faults compare

A

both are reverse faults (with hanging wall pushing up against gravity) HOWEVER a thrust fault has a GENTLER slope compared to reverse faults

142
Q

normal fault

A

hanging wall MOVES DOWN relative to the footwall

143
Q

describe what happens to the crust in normal faults

A

thinning of the crust

144
Q

type of plate boundary associated with normal faults

A

divergent boundary (extension)

145
Q

describe two regions in a normal fault

A

graben
- center block bounded by NORMAL faults that DROPS as the plates separate

Horst
- raised blocks between grabens bounded by normal faults

146
Q

type of fault

A

normal fault

147
Q

movement of hanging wall in reverse faults

A

moves UP relative to the footwall block

148
Q

type of plate boundary where reverse faults are found

A

convergent boundary

149
Q

describe crust in reverse faults

A

shortening of crust

150
Q

what angle indicates a reverse fault? thrust fault?

A

reverse fault = angle GREATER than 45 degrees

thrust fault = LESS than 45 degrees

151
Q
A

normal fault

152
Q
A

reverse fault

153
Q
A

thrust fault

154
Q

dominant displacement in stroke-slip faults

A

horizontal and parallel to the strike of the fault

155
Q

types of strike-slip faults

A

right and left lateral faults

156
Q

what part of the earth does a strike slip fault cut through

A

the lithosphere

157
Q

what links spreading ocean ridges

A

strike-slip fault

158
Q

examples of strike-slip faults

A

san Andreas Fault

159
Q

what type of boundary shows strike-slip fault

A

transform boundary

160
Q

two processes that classify tectonic landforms

A

constructional landforms (aggregation)

destructional landforms (deaggregation)

161
Q

examples of depositional landforms

A
  1. alluvial fans
  2. deltas
162
Q

type of processes contributed to aggregation landforms

A
  1. depositional processes
  2. endogenic processes
163
Q

what landforms are depositional processes responsible for

A
  1. alluvial fans
  2. deltas
164
Q

what are endogenic processes responsible for

A

orogenies (mountains) and regional uplift

165
Q

what are destruction processes involving

A

removal of material (weathering and erosion)

166
Q

are destructional landforms based from exogenic or endogenic processes

A

exogenic

167
Q

are constructional landforms based from exogenic or endogenic processes

A

endogenic

168
Q

where do endogenic processes work

A

WITHIN the earth

169
Q

what process produced INITIAL landforms

A

endogenic processes

170
Q

what powers endogenic processes

A

earth’s internal energy (convection currents)

171
Q

what process brings fresh rock to surface

A

endogenic processes

172
Q

where do exogenic processes work

A

at earth’s surface

173
Q

does endogenic or exogenic processes wear down landforms

A

exogenic

174
Q

what process is responsible for SEQUENTIAL landforms

A

exogenic processes

175
Q

what are fold belts

A

compression from tectonic activity producing folds in the rock strata (anticlines and synclines)

176
Q

what force forms fold belts

A

compression

176
Q

what erodes to form ridge and valley landscapes

A

fold belts

177
Q

how does fault slippage vary

A

from 1 cm to 15 cm

178
Q

how are strike-slip faults (transcurrent) produced

A

tectonic plates move past each other HORIZONTALLY

179
Q

how are reverse/thrust faults produced

A

compression in the crust (convergent plates)

180
Q

how can landscapes have high fault scarps

A

through repeated faulting

181
Q

what does rock structure control for tectonic landforms

A
  1. locations of uplands
  2. locations of lowlands
  3. placement of streams
  4. shape and height of divides
182
Q

structures in arid regions due to tectonic movement

A
  1. plateaus
  2. mesas
  3. buttes
183
Q

1

A

mesa

184
Q

2

A

butte

185
Q

3

A

plateau

186
Q

landforms in costal plains

A
  1. consequent streams
  2. subsequent streams
  3. cuestas
187
Q

metamorphic belts

A

rocks undergo compressional strees under surface with just enough heat to form a metamorphic belt

188
Q

what can metamorphic belts form

A

ridges (hard rock) and valleys (soft rock)

189
Q

what type of metamorphic rock forms valleys

A

marble

190
Q

what type of metamorphic rock forms ridges and hills

A
  1. gneiss
  2. schist
  3. slate
  4. quartize
191
Q

batholiths

A

huge body of intrusive IGNEOUS rock that forms hilly or mountainous uplands

192
Q

Monadnock

A

a mountain that arises out of a surrounding plain

193
Q

why do Monadnocks develop

A

because it consist of more resistant rock than the surrounding region.

Geomorphology (12 decks)

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